Category: Culture

Culture

Werecats, Part V: The Wampus Cat

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

At long last, we have reached the end of our series on werecats. We are rounding out the line-up with werepumas, which really only take one form: the wampus cat. It might be a bit of a stretch the call wampus cats a type of werecat, but they do have many of the common characteristics. Plus, these creatures come from my own neck of the woods, so I didn’t want to leave them out. I now present to you the (sort-of) werecat of the American south.

What is a Wampus Cat?

Wampus: An imaginary creature who lives in the deep Cape Fear River swamps.

Paul Green’s Wordbook: An Alphabet of Reminiscence, 1990
Map of Appalachian Mountains
Appalachian Mountains – Appalachian Regional Commission via Wikimedia Commons

Descriptions of the wampus cat vary depending upon the location, and it has a pretty large home range. Wampus cat folklore is concentrated throughout the southern Appalachian Mountains, from Virginia to Mississippi (2, 7). The stories even crop up to the west in Missouri and Arkansas (8). Wampus cats are usually said to be part-human, part-cougar (1-3, 5, 7) but are sometimes a canine-feline hybrid instead (2, 8). Others describe them as huge, black panthers with demonic, glowing eyes (5). Typical traits include walking on two legs instead of four, luminescent yellow eyes, and a bone-chilling howl or scream (1, 2, 8).

How dangerous wampus cats are depends upon who you ask, as well. In some legends, the wampus cat can be destructive but doesn’t pose a danger to human lives. She may disturb or damage items left outside and kill or steal livestock, and she makes scary noises in the woods at night (6). Sometimes the wampus cat is said to drive people insane (8) or to portend death with its haunting cries (7).

There are those who swear wampus cats are much more dangerous than that, however, and will absolutely attack humans with intent to kill (1, 5). Yet according to a Cherokee version of the legend, the wampus cat is actually a protector of the land and its people (2, 8). The tale of the wampus cat may have originated with the Cherokee (7), although it’s hard to say for sure because the provenance of the lore has become quite muddied.

Murky Origins

Cherokee Curse

This seems to be the most common origin story for the wampus cat. It’s also the one that I remember reading in a book of spooky stories as a teenager. It begins with a beautiful Cherokee woman who wants to know what the men get up to on their hunts, which women are forbidden from participating in (1-3, 6, 7). In some versions of the tale, she is jealous, believing that her husband may be engaging in infidelity while he’s away from her (1). In others she wants to learn the magic rites that the men perform on these trips (6).

Whatever her reasons, she covered herself in a puma skin as a disguise and snuck after the men the next time they went hunting (1-3, 6, 7). They caught her spying on them, and the shaman put a curse on her as punishment (1-3, 6, 7). The woman and the cougar pelt became one, and she was turned into a half-human, half-cougar, doomed to wander the forests forever away from human companionship (1-3, 6, 7).

Although this story is about the Cherokee, it probably was not their story (6). In fact, the Cherokee have a different myth about the cat creature, which I will get to next. It’s thought that the first stories of the wampus cat–under a different name–were shared among Native Americans, especially the Cherokee, and later relayed to white settlers (2). Then, perhaps because of cultural differences or just the Telephone Game that happens with folklore, the European newcomers began to tell the story differently.

Cherokee Hero

The Cherokee legend also casts a woman in the starring role, but in a much different light. Once upon a time, a Cherokee village was under siege by a demon: Ew’ah, the Spirit of Madness (2, 8). Ew’ah ate dreams and could drive people insane with a single glance (8). The Cherokee’s strongest warrior, Standing Bear (or sometimes Great Fellow), was chosen to go out and kill the demon (8). When he finally returned weeks later, he was completely insane (2, 8).

Close-up of mountain lion
Photo by Jake Heckey from Pixabay

Standing Bear’s wife, Running Deer, was heartbroken–and determined to get revenge (8). The shamans gave Running Deer a wild cat mask and a magical black paste that would hide her scent and her body (8). They told her that she must surprise the demon, or she would fare no better than her husband (8).

So Running Deer tracked Ew’ah through the forest and managed to sneak up behind it as it was drinking from a spring (8). Running Deer sprang upon Ew’ah, taking it by surprise just as she’d planned (2, 8). The spirit of the mountain cat in the mask banished the demon, and Running Deer ran home without looking back (8). The shamans and warchiefs named Running Deer “Spirit-Talker” and “Home-Protector” in honor of her courageous act (8). They say that she is still protecting her home now in the form of the wampus cat (2, 8).

Witchy Werecat

On the flip side, there is a common wampus cat tale that has European colonists written all over it. Where there are women and cats, there must be witches, right? The story claims that an Appalachian village was being terrorized by a spate of mysterious livestock thefts (3). They believed a witch was the culprit, and they had a particular woman in mind (3). Some of the townspeople followed her from her home to a farm late one night (3).

They watched as she transformed into a house cat and sneaked into the farmhouse (3). She put a sleeping spell on the family, slunk back outside, and entered the barn (3). There, she began to transform back into a human (3). The townspeople interrupted her, however, preventing her from finishing the spell (1, 3). She was able to escape capture, but was stuck halfway between a human and a cat thereafter (1, 3).

The Government Did It

This one is my favorite because it’s just so wild. There is an urban legend version of the wampus cat specific to Alabama which has it that wampus cats were created by a secret government program (2). The story goes that this World War II-era program aimed to create a fast, courageous animal that could be used as messengers in warzones (2). In a remote place in Alabama, government scientists made a creature that was part mountain lion, part gray wolf (2). How that was allegedly accomplished in the 1940s when it wouldn’t even be possible today, is anyone’s guess. According to legend, some of these hypothetical animals escaped the facility and established themselves in the environment (2). As someone with a degree in genetics, I firmly assert that this make no sense. But what a story!

Wampus Cats in Media

Statue of wampus cat
Conway High School’s six-legged wampus cat mascot – Photo by Lord Belbury via Wikimedia Commons

Wampus cats are not an especially common supernatural creature in popular culture, but that doesn’t mean they never rear their furry heads. Cormac McCarthy incorporated them in his debut novel, The Orchard Keeper (7). McCarthy’s character Uncle Arthur is plagued by dreams of wampus cats which he fears will enter his bedchamber and “suck his meager breath” (7).

In The Island of Dr. Moreau, H. G. Wells paints a truly horrifying picture of the depravity of humankind in the service of science. Wells uses an unusual word for the wampus cat, “virago,” in a scene with Dr. Moreau’s surgically-built puma woman (7). The narrator notes dispassionately that the creature’s shrieks under the torture of Dr. Moreau’s knife sound “almost exactly like that of an angry virago” (7). The puma woman immediately escapes and succeeds at exacting her revenge on her tormentor, although she loses her life as well (7).

  • J. K. Rowling made Wampus Cat one of the houses in Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
  • There was a string ensemble in the late 1930s called The Wampus Cats.
  • Strangeways Brewing makes a Wampus Cat Triple IPA.
  • Great American Craft Spirits makes a Wampus Cat Single Malt Whiskey.
  • Cry of the Wampus Cat by Joel Eden is a crime thriller that uses the Cherokee curse wampus cat mythology and pits two detectives against a series of murders that may have been committed by a wampus cat.
  • Several schools use the wampus cat as their mascot, including Conway High School, which depicts is as a blue-and-white mountain lion with six legs. Your guess is as good as mine.

Is the Wampus Cat Just a Cat?

With all those possible origin stories for the wampus cat, there is another we have yet to examine. Is the wampus cat just a case of mistaken identity? Most of the descriptions sound a lot like a real puma, except sometimes on two legs instead of four, which cats can’t do for very long. Puma eyes can glow at night, a phenomenon known as eyeshine. It is caused by the reflective layer at the back of their eyes which helps felines see in low light. As for the unearthly wails of the wampus cat? If you’ve never heard a mountain lion scream, I’ve included a video below. The sound is often compared to a woman screaming in fear or pain.

There are two problems with this hypothesis, however. The first is that the legend of the wampus cat likely began with the local Native Americans. They shared the forests with cougars and would have known very well what they look and sound like. Widespread misidentification seems highly improbable. The second is that cougars have been extinct in the east (except Florida) for almost 100 years. At least, that’s the official line.

There’s no one, simple answer to the first quandary, but there might be to the second. Although Fish and Wildlife Services maintain that the Eastern Cougar is extinct, people sure seem to see a lot of them for that to be the case (5). They also continue to see wampus cats and to blame them for attacking livestock (2). If people don’t expect to see pumas it might be easier to conflate the two.

In 2017, Tennessee confirmed 10 mountain lion sightings after none in the last hundred years (5). As far as I know, that’s the closest the Eastern Cougar has come to official de-extinction. Why aren’t wildlife officials interested in cougar sightings? A North Carolina fish and game official, who wished to remain anonymous, told journalist Mike Conley that wildlife officials might be afraid admitting the Eastern Cougar is back in town could lead to hunters flocking to bag the cats (5). Not many people seem interested in taking home wampus cat trophies, however. Perhaps the wampus cat is a protector of the forest after all.

Trail cam footage of female mountain lion featuring “screaming” vocalizations and eyeshine

Works Cited

  1. Bahr, J., Taylor, T., Coleman, L., Moran, M., and Sceurman, M. (2007). Weird Virginia: Your travel guide to Virginia’s local legends and best kept secrets. Sterling Publishing Company: New York.
  2. Conley, M. (2013, August 1). Mike Conley’s tales of the weird: legend of the wampus cat. The McDowell News. https://mcdowellnews.com/opinion/mike-conley-s-tales-of-the-weird-legend-of-the/article_3891ddce-f53e-5659-8f26-e4274c9ebe91.html
  3. Farley, J. T. K. (2017, March 31). Have you ever heard of Appalachia’s wampus cat legend? Appalachian Magazine. http://appalachianmagazine.com/2017/03/31/have-you-ever-heard-of-appalachias-wampus-cat-legend/
  4. Green, P. (1990). Wampus. In R. H. Wynn (ed.), Paul Green’s wordbook: An alphabet of reminiscence (pp. 1183). Appalachian State University: Boone, NC.
  5. McDowell, I. (2017, July 26). Wampus cats, panthers, and cougars, oh my! Yes! Weekly. https://www.yesweekly.com/news/wampus-cats-panthers-and-cougars-oh-my/article_49f88d47-98a5-57f9-9459-a28a0bfc139c.html
  6. North Carolina Ghosts. (n.d.). The wampus cat. https://northcarolinaghosts.com/mountains/wampus-cat/
  7. Place, E. (2017, June 27). Big cats of the Southeast (part 3): The wampus cat and other anthropomorphic depictions. The History Bandits. https://thehistorybandits.com/2017/06/27/big-cats-of-the-southeast-part-3-the-wampus-cat-and-other-anthropomorphic-depictions/
  8. Tabler, D. (2017, October 13). The story of the wampus cat. Appalachian History. https://www.appalachianhistory.net/2017/10/story-of-wampus-cat.html

Published April 11th, 2021

Updated May 12th, 2023

Culture

Werecats, Part IV: The Ferocious Wereleopard

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Woman in leopard-print onesie
Photo by Love2401 from Pixabay

There are many parts of the world where more than one species of large cat is obliged to coexist, and the same is true for werecats. Wereleopards are part of folk beliefs in parts of Africa and Asia, where they share their territory with other fearsome werecats. However, the wereleopards are not diminished by having to share. In fact, this is easily the wildest werecat article I’ve written yet, because in the 1940s, wereleopards were blamed for over 200 real-life murders in Nigeria (1, 7). Get ready for cat blogging to take a detour into true crime.

Wereleopards in India

A wereleopard outpost exists in the land of weretigers. In an area on the India-Burma border known as the Naga Hills, there is a tradition of overlapping wereleopard and weretiger lore. Wereleopards seem to be primarily an African phenomenon, so this is sort of a cultural outlier. But wherever there are leopards, there might be wereleopards.

The Angami and Sema people hold that there are no physical transformations, but that wereleopards project their souls into the body of a wild leopard (5). The human and leopard then become closely associated with each other (5). The leopard’s body actually changes. Such leopards can be recognized because they have five toes on each paw (5). Felines normally have five toes on their forepaws and four on their hind paws. J.H. Hutton, who wrote about the werecat beliefs of the Naga people, observed the body of such a leopard (5). Then again, as you may recall from my article on Hemingway cats, extra toes/polydactyly is a common, benign mutation in felines.

There are several ways the Naga peoples believe someone can become a wereleopard. The Angami say there is a spring of either blood or blood-red water, drinking from which turns a person into a wereleopard or weretiger (5). The Sema think one becomes a wereleopard through possession by spirits, often involuntarily (5). However, this possession is contagious, so if somebody wanted to be a wereleopard, they could do it by spending all their time with a known wereleopard for at least two months (5). The would-be wereleopard must sleep in the existing wereleopard’s bed, eat from the same dish, and never leave their side (5).

According to some, an easier method is to have a wereleopard feed them pieces of chicken with ginger–first six, then five, and then three pieces on crossed plantain leaves (5). It’s considered dangerous to finish food or drink that a wereleopard has left behind, as the condition might accidentally be acquired that way (5). To me, that seems like the easiest way to become a wereleopard if you wanted to. Just make a habit of polishing off everyone’s leftovers and hope for the best. Not very sanitary, but also very low-effort.

The soul usually enters the leopard at night during sleep and returns in the morning, but it may remain in the leopard for several days at a time (5). While the human soul is out doing leopard things, the human body continues to conduct business as usual, but in a sort of zombie-like state (5). As usual, any injuries sustained by the leopard body are reflected by the human one (5). They appear a few days later, typically in the form of boils or similar marks in the place where the leopard was injured (5). Death to the leopard body causes death to the human (5). Curiously, death is not immediate, but rather only occurs once the wereleopard finds out that their leopard has been killed (5).

Leopard
Photo by MIGUEL PEREZ from Pixabay

The sentiments about wereleopards vary. It seems that in these cultures, people aren’t too fussed about someone being a wereleopard as long as they don’t cause too much trouble. Friends and family may even go to great effort to protect a wereleopard’s leopard body (5). The killing of a lot of livestock, or of people, by a suspected wereleopard could lead to punitive action, however (5).

Wereleopards in Africa

Wereleopards in Africa may be obliged to share their turf with werelions, and like werelions they sometimes represent leadership and authority (2, 3). Some Egyptian pharaohs took the leopard as their personal symbol (2). However, wereleopards can be at least as dangerous as regular leopards. Importantly, wereleopards are capable of human thoughts and motivations. They may act with malicious intent to get revenge on their enemies (4).

Wereleopards do have their weaknesses, of course. As seems to universally be the case, a wereleopard’s human body is subject to the injuries of its leopard form, just like in the lore of the Naga Hills. Sometimes this is said to manifest as respiratory illness if the leopard was chased by something for a long time (3). Wounds to the leopard may appear as sores (3) or as identical wounds on the human body (4, 5, 7).

How to Become a Wereleopard

In a Bantu legend, a man became a wereleopard by first asking his wife to cook a ridiculous quantity of stiff manioc porridge. He then took the porridge into the forest and shaped it into a duplicate of himself. In the market, he bought a fetish which had the power to turn a person into a wereleopard. He went to a crossroads in the forest and beat his body with a pestle until he metamorphosed into a leopard. His porridge body then got up, went home, and replaced him without anyone noticing the difference. (6)

It doesn’t always have to be quite so complicated. Alternatively, one could just drink a potion made of human organs (8). Or one could be killed and eaten by a leopard, which allows the human soul to travel into the leopard and turn the cat into a wereleopard (10). I imagine not many people pick that option on purpose.

Wereleopards were sometimes believed to be the descendants of a leopard deity that produced shapeshifting children with a human partner (8). In such a case, the ability could simply be inherited.

Identifying a Wereleopard

People who are especially fast runners, strong fighters, agile jumpers, or skilled dancers or moved with a feline gait were said to be possible wereleopards (3, 9). Upon autopsy, black spots on one or both lungs were a sure sign (3). If both lungs were marked, the person had two leopards (3). The lungs can also become discolored because of disease, but there is one sign I guarantee indicates, if not a wereleopard, at least something unusual. Wereleopards in human form sometimes had a second mouth on the back of their head (11)!

Some stories claimed that the leopard form could also be distinguished. It might, for instance, have ten tails, which would certainly stand out (11). Wereleopards move in groups, but leopards are primarily solitary, so this can distinguish them as well (3). In the absence of nine extra tails, that is.

The Leopard Murders

Close-up of leopard
Photo by Tobias Heine from Pixabay

Wereleopards were real and present for the cultures that believed in them for centuries untold. When European countries carved Africa up into colonies, the colonizers disregarded wereleopards along with all other native beliefs. In 1940s Nigeria, however, the British administration had to face wereleopards head-on, whether they were willing to believe in them or not. Between 1943 and 1948, over 200 people were killed and mutilated in a bizarre and devastating crime wave for which 77 people hanged (7). These were the Leopard Murders, and to this day no one is 100% sure what really happened.

Nothing to See Here

The leopard murders took place in two districts of British Nigeria, Abak and Opobo. The native culture lacked central authority (7). Instead, secret societies were a primary governing force (7). These secret societies performed religious, administrative, judicial, and policing functions (7). British authority in the area was fairly hands-off before the murders, with a small police presence (7).

The timeline begins in 1943, although it’s possible that earlier deaths went unnoticed. Even the first leopard murders were not remarked upon. Police and medical examiners concluded that the victims had all been killed by wild animals (7). Leopard prints, scat, and hair were sometimes find at the scene (7). However, a pattern was forming. Here’s where we talk about corpses, so skip the next paragraph if you don’t want to know.

Most of the victims were killed at dusk along bush paths (7). The bodies usually had bruises on the back of the head, the head and face torn off, and one arm skinned, severed, and thrown a few feet from the body (7). Deep, irregular scratches marred the chest and shoulders (7). Sometimes the heart, lungs, and/or other internal organs were missing (7).

In March 1945, the new District Officer for Abak, F.R. Kay, became suspicious (7). The consistency and precision of the mutilations didn’t seem likely for a wild animal to Kay (7). He also thought it improbable that a leopard would excise chest organs but leave the abdomen and large muscle tissue untouched (7). Predators tend to go for the abdominal organs first, as they’re easy to access and highly nutritious. But that wasn’t all that bothered him. Some of the “animal attack” victims had had clothing removed and money stolen from their wallets (7). Once, the purported leopard wrapped its victim’s head in her loincloth (7).

On the Tail of a Murder Cult

Kay teamed up with the District Officer of Opobo, J.G.C. Allen, to investigate (7). They soon became convinced that the accumulating deaths were the doing of a murder cult (7). They suspected a new secret society called Ekpe Owo, meaning “leopard men,” which had putatively evolved from the policing secret society Ekpe (7). The police were told that some members of Ekpe had obtained a medicine that turned them into wereleopards (7). After that, the new Ekpe Owo began working as a society of murderers-for-hire, violently solving disputes among the natives that the British courts didn’t understand or couldn’t handle (7).

Kay and Allen raised quite a stir. A large police force was sent in to root out the murderous leopard society that Kay and Allen were certain was to blame (7). The native locals were put upon to feed and take care of the police presence (7). Despite the sometimes oppressive efforts of the police, and plenty of convictions, the killings continued. The news media in Europe began to pick up on the salacious case, and the police felt the pressure to make progress (7). Their solution was to send an even larger force, with the express intention of annoying the locals so much that they would tell the police everything they knew just to make them go away (7).

The new leopard force operated much as the previous one, and killings continued much as before, too (7). Public hangings of the convicted were instituted as a deterrent and a curfew was put in place, as most of the murders were perpetrated in the evening (7). The locals did not much appreciate any of the policework (7). So far, it had apparently saved no lives and caused them a great deal of difficulty. Things only got worse when the first European was killed, a police officer no less, in January of 1947 (7). The police responded by making the entire Idiong secret society illegal because the individual suspects belonged to it (7). Hundreds of Idiong shrines were destroyed (7).

Leopard laying on fallen tree
Photo by ejakob from Pixabay

Who You Gonna McCall?

In August of 1947, J.A.G. McCall became the new District Officer over both Opobo and Abak (7). He was skeptical of the murder cult theory. He believed that normal leopards were behind most, if not all, of the killings (1, 7). McCall also had things to say about the behavior of the police. He denounced the bullying tactics the police had been using (7). He also called the police out on their poor evidence-gathering technique (1, 7). In some cases, police never even visited the crime scene (1, 7)!

McCall was particularly bothered by the fact that there had been no leopard murders north of the Qua Ibo river in villages of the same culture (1). There was a bridge across the river, so it would have been no problem for a human perpetrator, or a real wereleopard, for that matter, to cross and commit murder (1). But such a barrier is much more difficult for animals to cross. He also noted that leopard murders were more numerous where the natural prey of leopards had been overhunted and was in short supply (1).

McCall undertook a campaign of leopard trapping and killing in attempt to rid the area of the alleged man-eaters (1, 7). While most of the police didn’t like McCall straying from the party line, the locals had more mixed feelings (1, 7). Some villagers were arrested for springing the leopard traps or otherwise sabotaging the hunt (7). There were stories of people who died because their leopard forms were killed in the hunt (7). On the other hand, when McCall was eventually sent to another post, nine chiefs and representatives of Ikot Akan, Opobo, sent a letter asking for him to be restored to his post in Opobo (1).

37 leopards were killed over the course of the campaign (7). McCall believed that he succeeded in killing at least a few leopards that had been responsible for the slew of deaths. One of his suspected man-eaters was a large, elderly male that was trapped and killed the night after two of the ‘leopard murders’ (1). The leopard had two broken fangs and a mutilated paw that was missing a pad from a long-ago injury (1). Old age and injury have occasionally caused big cats to switch to human prey because humans are soft to chew and easy to catch. The man-eaters of Tsavo is a famous case of that type.

The killing of 37 leopards is a tragedy, but depending upon who you ask it may have been the right thing to do. Beyond that, McCall also called into question the previous convictions and succeeded in getting the sentences of 16 men commuted from execution to life in prison, at least until their cases could be reexamined (1, 7). Whether those cases were reconsidered or not wasn’t mentioned.

By May, 1948, things had returned almost to normal (7). 77 people and 37 leopards had been executed (1, 7). A variety of other solutions had been thrown at the insane situation as well. Which, if any of them, actually brought about a resolution? One theory holds that the complexity of the problem was always underestimated. Some of the murders were Ekpe Owo assassinations, some were acts of violence between citizens disguised as leopard or Ekpe Owo killings, and some were leopard depredation (7). Maybe isn’t that complicated, and only one or two groups were at play but the volatile human environment preventing the mystery being solved. Unfortunately, we won’t solve it now, but that doesn’t mean we should stop thinking about it. There’s probably a lot to be learned from the leopard murders.

The Man Who Stole a Leopard by Duran Duran ~ TW: domestic abuse, self-harm, suicide

Works Cited

  1. Bellers, V. (n.d.). The leopard murders of Opobo. In What Mr. Sanders really did, or A speck in the ocean of time (chapter nineteen). Retrieved from https://www.britishempire.co.uk/article/sanders/sanderschapter19.htm
  2. Curran, B. and Daniels, I. (2009). Werewolves: A field guide to shapeshifters, lycanthropes, and man-beasts. Franklin Lakes, NJ: The Career Press.
  3. Douglas, M. (2013). Witcraft confessions and accusations. Abingdon, OX: Taylor & Francis.
  4. Hubbard, J.W. (1931). The Isoko country, southern Nigeria. The Geographical Journal, 77(2), 110-120. https://doi.org/10.2307/1784387
  5. Hutton, J.H. (1920). Leopard-men in the Naga Hills. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 50, 41-51. https://doi.org/10.2307/2843373
  6. Knappert, J. (Ed). (1977). Bantu myths and other tales. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
  7. Nwaka, G.I. (1986). The ‘leopard’ killings of southern Annang, Nigeria, 1943-48. Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, 56(4), 417-440. https://doi.org/10.2307/1159998
  8. Swancer, B. (2016, November 24). Beyond werewolves: Strange were-beasts of the world. Mysterious Universe. https://mysteriousuniverse.org/2016/11/beyond-werewolves-strange-were-beasts-of-the-world/
  9. Talbot, P.A. (1923). Life in southern Nigeria: The magic, beliefs, and customs of the Ibibio tribe. London: Macmillan and Company, Ltd.
  10. Werner, A. (1929). Review, untitled [Review of the book An English-Tswa Dictionary]. Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London 5(2), 436-438. https://www.jstor.org/stable/607728
  11. Werner, A. (1933). The Amazimu. In Myths and legends of the Bantu (chapter seven). Abingdon, OX: Taylor and Francis. Retrieved from https://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/mlb/mlb14.htm

Published January 31th, 2021

Updated June 12th, 2023

Culture

Why do we say that cats have nine lives?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Image by Hebi B. from Pixabay

Although there may not be many people who believe the myth anymore, the idiom “cats have nine lives” is all over the cat world. I distinctly remember two books I had as a child based on that concept. One was a picture book about how a cat lost eight of his lives before finding his forever home with the ninth. Rather disturbing in retrospect. The other was a about a cat who could travel to nine different times and places. Usually, though, people use the phrase in reference to cats surviving incredible odds. What is the origin of this fanciful phrase? And why nine lives specifically?

A cat has nine lives. For three he plays, for three he strays, and for the last three he stays.

English proverb

StarClan Grants You Six to Ten Lives

The general consensus is that the myth of feline reincarnation began with simple observation. Cats do have an uncanny ability to escape danger, injury, and death. In particular, their ability to survive long falls with little or no damage is legendary. We know now that cats have a “righting reflex,” among other natural adaptations, which allows them to land on their feet and absorb the shock of a fall (1, 3, 4, 6). But people didn’t know that hundreds or thousands of years ago. To them, the feline capability to walk away from falls that would have killed a human–and many other animals besides–may have seemed nothing less than supernatural.

Many cultures have attributed magical properties to the sheer durability of cats. While it is actually quite common to say that cats have multiple lives, the number varies. The United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and China are some of the places where cats are said to have nine lives (6). However, Italy, Greece, Germany, Brazil, and some Spanish-speaking countries put the number at seven (1, 5, 6). In Turkish and Arabic lore, it’s even less–just six lives (1, 5, 6). Russia, on the other hand, has a saying that cats survive nine deaths, which would mean they get ten lives (3).

What’s in a Number?

Many cultures hold certain numbers sacred, lucky, or otherwise important. Nine is one of those numbers in quite a few places. It is three threes, a trinity of trinities (2, 3, 5, 6). Most importantly, perhaps, the number nine held religious significance to the ancient Egyptians. Rather famously, cats did, too.

Ancient Egyptian cat statue – Image by Fritz_the_Cat from Pixabay

The ancient Egyptians believed the sun god, Atum-Ra, sometimes took the form of a cat (1, 5, 6). Atum-Ra gave birth to eight other gods and therefore represented nine lives (1, 5, 6). Additionally, Bast/Bastet, the cat-headed goddess most closely associated with ancient Egyptian cat worship, was said to have nine lives (2). One or both of these deities could have built the association between cats, which were already considered divine and magical in ancient Egyptian culture, and the idea of having nine lives.

Some people think cats may have gotten their nine lives from China instead, however. China also has a long and close history with cats. Nine is considered a lucky number there (1, 5, 6). It comes up a lot in the mythology of Chinese dragons (1). Maybe the number nine also attached itself to Chinese cats.

Other cultures assign special meaning to the number nine, too, and the numbers six, seven, and ten got in there somewhere as well. “Cats have nine lives” is a saying that has been around for hundreds of years at least. William Shakespeare uses the idiom in Romeo and Juliet which was written around 1595 (6). When a saying gets to be over 400 years old, it’s usually very difficult to track its exact origin. The significance of the number nine combined with the keen survival skills of cats makes a good case for itself as the root, wherever the phrase was first spoken.

Mercutio: Tybalt, you rat-catcher, will you go fight me?

Tybalt: What do you want from me?

Mercutio: Good King of Cats, I want to take one of your nine lives, and, depending on how you treat me after that, I might beat the other eight out of you, too.

Romeo and Juliet, Act III, William Shakespeare

Works Cited

  1. Bhunjun, A. (2017, August 31). Why do cats ‘have nine lives’? What we know behind the myth. Metro. https://metro.co.uk/2017/08/31/why-do-cats-have-nine-lives-what-we-know-behind-the-myth-6890326/
  2. Brasch, R. and Brasch, L. (2006). How did it begin? The origins of our curious customs and superstitions. MJF Books.
  3. Cats have nine lives. (n.d.). TV Tropes. https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/CatsHaveNineLives
  4. Diamond, J.M. (1988). Why cats have nine lives. Nature, 332(14), 586-587. https://doi.org/10.1038/332586a0
  5. Engelman, C. (n.d.). Do cats really have nine lives? Wonderopolis. https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/do-cats-really-have-nine-lives
  6. Schlueter, R. (2018, March 23). Here’s how people started believing that cats have nine lives. Belleville News-Democrat. https://www.bnd.com/living/liv-columns-blogs/answer-man/article206591029.html

Published January 24, 2021

Culture

Werecats, Part III: The Champion Werejaguar

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Profile of jaguar
Image by Ian Lindsay from Pixabay

The jaguar is a fearsome apex predator that stalks the forests of South and Central America. These incredible animals face extinction from habitat loss and poaching today, but they were once key figures in the cultural life of the great Mesoamerican civilizations. So much so that echoes of werejaguar mythology have remained in the region into modern times, despite the best efforts of Christian missionaries to stamp out and demonize these beliefs.

The Olmec: Birth of the Werejaguar

The trail of the werejaguar begins with the Olmec. The Olmec were an advanced Central American society that existed approximately 1500 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. (7). The first Olmec stonework was discovered in 1867 (4), but a lot about this civilization remains mysterious. They are believed to have been a major influence on the later Mesoamerican cultures, i.e. the Aztecs and Maya, yet so much about the Olmec themselves is unknown or a matter of debate (7). The Olmec are mostly known from recovered art and architecture, and a common feature decorated upon both is their werejaguar.

The Olmec werejaguar is a motif in their art that appears to have a blend of human and feline characteristics. These figures are generally human in form but have downturned mouths, almond-shaped eyes, and cleft heads, often with snouts, fangs, and/or special headdresses (2, 4, 5, 7, 9).

A lot of explanations have been offered for these werejaguars that just keep cropping up. They’ve been found as sculptures, on pottery, carved into bas-relief on buildings, and into masks and figurines (7). The photo at left is of a stone werejaguar that is actually part of a drainage system. There is a groove in the back of it for water to flow through. Obviously, the Olmec had a thing for this design. Why?

Hypotheses

In 1955, archeologist Matthew Stirling proposed that these were-jaguars depicted the mythic offspring of matings between male jaguars and human women (7, 9). He based this idea on a handful of Olmec artworks that seemed, to him, to show the act of such mating (7, 9). Not everyone has been on board with Stirling’s hypothesis. However, one of the articles I read included a picture of a cave painting Stirling used for reference (9). I’ll admit that I can see where he’s coming from.

Olmec werejaguar statue
Monument 52 from San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan, Veracruz showing Olmec werejaguar – Wikimedia Commons

Theories that take the Stirling Hypothesis into account assume that the jaguar was revered by the Olmec, therefore there would be a benefit to descending from jaguars in their culture. One theory is that royalty may have claimed to belong to a jaguar lineage, thus imbuing themselves with the power associated with that animal (4, 5). Perhaps the hybridization was meant to be with a jaguar deity, rather than a literal jaguar (4, 5). It’s hard to tell from art that is out-of-context and thousands of years old. And of course, Stirling might have been wrong all along.

Some scholars believe, based on later religious traditions from the area, that the Olmec werejaguars are representations of a rain/fertility god (5, 9). It has also been proposed that they depict a nature spirit called upon by the shamans (9). The Mixe, who are believed to be distant descendants of the Olmec, have a similar spirit in their religion (9). He is a shapeshifter named is ‘Ene∙ who generates rain (9). His offspring become venomous snakes and jaguars (9).

One theory comes closest to what we would think of as a werejaguar. What if the Olmec intended to represent a shamanic transformation from man to animal (2, 5)? An Olmec ceramic vessel that dates from 150 B.C.E. to 250 C.E. shows a man with a werejaguar mask covering only half his face, as if in mid-transformation (5). Perhaps all of these part-human, part-jungle cat designs indicate a transformation. Although scholars can only speculate, more modern beliefs do make one wonder if the Olmec might have at least thought it possible.

Postcolonial Werejaguars

The Olmec may be long gone, but there are still werejaguars in their old stomping grounds, and beyond. But these aren’t made of stone or clay. They’re flesh-and-blood people.

There are two kinds of weretiger in Postcolonial Mesoamerican: the tonal and the nagual. The difference between the two is complicated, especially as the words are sometimes used interchangeably or in place of the other. Some regions have only one, some both, and the stories vary as all do. I’ll try to make it as straightforward as possible.

Tonal

In some Mesoamerican groups, it is believed that every person has a counterpart in nature, usually an animal, called a tonal (6, 8). A person’s tonal is born at the same time they are and lives in parallel to them their entire life (6). Although the person and their tonal lead their own lives, what happens to one can happen to the other (6). No one knows what their tonal is instinctively, but if they fall ill without discernible cause, a healer must be consulted who can determine the person’s tonal (6). An injury or illness to the tonal is assumed to be the problem, and only by finding the tonal can a solution be prescribed for one party or the other (6).

Quite a few animals can be tonal, including rabbits, deer, snakes, raccoons, tigrillos, alligators, and, of course, jaguars (6). Natural phenomena, like storm clouds, can also be tonal (6). Domestic animals are off the list, however (6). When wild animals are seen acting in unusual ways, or evidence of strange behavior is found, this is interpreted as evidence that the animal is someone’s tonal (6). For example, when dead donkeys are found with only the liver and heart eaten, the conclusion is that only a tonal would do that (6).

When someone’s tonal dies, they die, and vice versa (6, 8). However, there is sometimes a chance to save the person when the tonal is killed. The skin of the tonal must be wrapped around its person, and this will only work if the skin is unsalted and untreated (6). If a hunter kills a tonal and treats the skin in any way before the family intervenes, there is nothing to be done. Tonalli aren’t just a burden, however. They are thought of as guardians and may act on the behalf of their people (6).

Jaguar on river bank
Male jaguar, Rio Negro, Brazil – Wikimedia Commons

Nagual

Naguales are a product of witchcraft, though whether for good or evil varies (3, 6). People are not naturally born with a nagual; rather, they are given one through ritual, often as an infant (1, 6). Like a tonal, a nagual is an animal that is inextricably linked to an individual person (3, 6, 8). However, having a nagual comes with extra perks.

There are multiple legends regarding the ritual to assign a nagual. In one, sorcerers pick a child before they are born. Then, after birth but before baptism, the sorcerer sends a nagual to whisk the baby away in the night. The infant is taken to a crossroads where a procession of animals pass over it. Whichever animal stops and cleans the baby with its tongue is the kind of animal that will be their nagual. If more than one does, any animal or animals, up to three, may be the child’s nagual. (6)

Bishop Francisco Nuñez de la Vega reported in 1698 that, at least in his diocese, naguales were assigned astrologically. The date and month of a child’s birth determined their nagual. Then “some diabolical ceremonies” were performed to find the right place for the parents to bring the child when they turned seven years old. At the appointed time and place, the child’s nagual would appear. As indicated by his earlier quote, the bishop considered the whole business to be the work of the Devil. (1)

Those with a nagual know intuitively what animal it is and may recognize it if they run across each other (6). They can also frequently transform into their nagual at will (1, 3, 6). A greater variety of animals can be a nagual than a tonal, including domestic cattle and several non-native species, but the jaguar remains a common theme (6).

A common story told in coastal Oaxaca, Mexico, goes that two men are walking together on the road when one asks his friend if he can be frightened. Of course, the friend says something “No, you can’t scare me!” So the one who asked will find a reason to leave the path, only to leap back onto it in the form of a jaguar. (6) I think there can be no question that this is exactly what humans would choose to do if capable of transforming into a ferocious beast. So I say it checks out.

A less amusing story is that of a group of women working in the fields when a man comes up and tries to make a move on one of them. She was having none of it and rebuffed him in front of the others, which made him angry. On the way home from work, the group of women were ambushed by a jaguar with human hands. Fortunately, he only wanted to scare them. The hands kind of gave him away as a werejaguar–and a jerk. (6)

Tragically, as has so often been the case, European colonizers were determined to destroy native beliefs in the tonal and nagual. A 1692 edict from Bishop de la Vega to his diocese read:

“And because in the provinces of our diocese those Indians who are Nagualists adore their naguals, and look upon them as gods…we, therefore, prescribe and command that in every town an ecclesiastical prison shall be constructed at the expense of the church, and that it be provided with fetters and stocks, and we confer authority on every priest and curate of a parish to imprison in these gaols whoever is guilty of disrespect toward our Holy Faith, and we enjoin them to treat with especial severity those who teach the doctrines of Nagualism.”

Tonal and nagual beliefs were still under scholarly discussion as recently as the mid-nineties, so I think it’s safe to say that the attempt, despite having three hundred years to bear fruit, was not as successful as its architects had hoped. Nonetheless, it is just another example of colonizers campaigning to erase the culture of the colonized. Let people have their culture; save the werejaguars.

Works Cited

  1. Brinton, D.G. (1894). Nagualism: A study in Native American folk-lore and history. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 33(144), 11-73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/983361
  2. Dallas Museum of Art. (n.d.). Standing figure with were-jaguar face. https://collections.dma.org/artwork/3049386
  3. Gossen, G.H. (1994). From Olmecs to Zapatistas: A once and future history of souls. American Anthropologist, 96(3), 553-570. https://www.jstor.org/stable/682300
  4. Heyworth, R. (2014, May 15). The Olmec: The children of the were-jaguar. Uncovered History. https://uncoveredhistory.com/mexico/the-olmec-children-of-the-were-jaguar/
  5. Johnson Museum of Art. (n.d.). Were-jaguar with half mask. https://museum.cornell.edu/collections/american/pre-columbian-america/were-jaguar-half-mask
  6. Kaplan, L.N. (1956). Tonal and nagual in coastal Oaxaca, Mexico. The Journal of American Folklore, 69(274), 363-368. https://doi.org/10.2307/536346
  7. Milton, G. and Gonzalo, R. (1974). Jaguar cult – Down’s Syndrome – were-jaguar. Expedition, 16(4), 33-37. https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/jaguar-cult-downs-syndrome-were-jaguar/
  8. Paz, J. (1995). The vicissitude of the alter ego animal in Mesoamerica: An ethnohistorical reconstruction of tonalism. Anthropos, 90(4/6), 445-465. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40463191
  9. Tate, C.E. (1999). Patrons of shamanic power: La Venta’s supernatural entities in light of Mixe beliefs. Ancient Mesoamerica, 10(2), 169-188. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26307986

Published December 20, 2020

Culture

Werecats, Part II: The Regal Werelion

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Werelion statue
5000-year-old lion-woman statue – Image by Welcome to all and thank you for your visit ! ツ from Pixabay

This week we resume our tour of werecats by traveling to Africa, home of the werelion. There, in the cradle of humanity, cats big and small are exquisite predators. Sometimes the big cats take human prey, and this must only have been more so the case in the early days of human history. Is it any wonder, then, that some African folktales have fused two of the most fearsome beasts they knew: humans and lions?

On the one hand, the folklore of Bantu African cultures explains that sovereigns are transformed into lions after death [1, 2]. This suggests a kinship with lions. However Knappert points out that is also tells us lions commanded the respect and fear of those that lived alongside them, just like kings do of their subjects [1]. A lion that used to be a king in a former life is a sort of spiritual werelion, but there are stories of werelions with real transformative powers, and they tend to have less ambiguous personalities.

To this werelion, I do thee wed…

Sometimes, the belief is that humans use magic to take the form of a lion for various nefarious purposes [2, 3]. However, it can be the other way around [3]. In one story, a lion took the shape of a man, moved into a village, and married a human woman [3]. After a while they had a child [3]. So far, so good, if a little strange. Then the werelion suggested the family go visit his parents [3]. Yikes! None the wiser, his wife agreed, and the little family set off, accompanied by the wife’s brother [3].

As the sun began to set, they made camp, and the werelion built a protective shelter, or kraal, of thorn bushes before announcing his intention to fish and leaving. The brother was not impressed with his brother-in-law’s kraal and strengthened it himself. As you will surely be shocked to learn, the werelion brought his family to attack that night, but the lions couldn’t breach the kraal. The werelion’s family shamed him for his failure, and they left. [3]

Image by Andrea Bohl from Pixabay

The werelion came back in the morning with fish and plenty of excuses, but the brother was becoming suspicious. When the werelion left to fish again, the brother went on a walk to think. He found a gnome (akachekulu) who confirmed his suspicions and, in return for some housecleaning, taught the brother how to make a magic drum that would enable him to fly when he played it. The brother hid his sister and the baby inside the drum and began to play. It worked, but the noise attracted the werelion. Fortunately, it also compelled the werelion to dance, and the brother was able to fly everyone home to the village, where the werelion dared not try to hurt them. [3]

Werelion defeated by smart kid with feathers

Humans are human everywhere, so many elements of folklore are cross-cultural. The phenomenon of were-beasts is one example, but this story has lots: the rule of three (twice), rags to riches, advice from magical objects. It also reminds me a little of the German fairy tale Rumpelstiltskin, but this time the mother is not the one who breaks the pact.

The story begins during a severe famine, with a pregnant woman searching for something to eat in the wilderness. She finds a lion that has just killed an antelope and offers to trade her child for its kill. The lion agrees. [1] Perhaps it’s a gap in my understanding as a cultural outsider, but it seems as though it is never clear why, exactly, the lion would want the woman’s unborn child. If he wants to eat it, why not just keep the antelope, or kill the woman and have all of the above? To me, not knowing what he has in mind is actually more disturbing.

But perhaps the lion’s intentions are irrelevant. Cases of parents bartering their children for food were not unheard of [1]. I have no doubt that such a thing is not isolated in space or time, either. Starvation is a horrible thing that can make people do horrible things just to survive. The werelion may simply be a convenient stand-in for the sort of person who would be happy to buy a child.

35,000 – 40,000-year-old lion man sculpture from German cave – Wikimedia Commons

Well, the woman gave birth to a son and named him Mutipi. Mutipi grew two feathers on top of his head, but he was the only one that could see them. Eventually, the lion decided the time had come, so he changed into a man and came to the house to collect Mutipi. But Mutipi took out his feathers and asked them what to do. They told him that this was Mr. Lion come to take him away, and that he must change himself into a mouse so that when his mother called him in for dinner, he would not be recognized. And it worked. [1]

The werelion tried twice more, but each time Mutipi’s feathers told him how to escape capture using tricks or magic. Finally, the werelion took Mutipi’s mother instead, and Mutipi fled to another country. There, he became a favored messenger for the king. The courtiers grew envious and tried thrice to kill Mutipi, but again, his feathers told him how to avoid assassination. [1]

When drought and famine killed everyone in the country but Mutipi, for only he had magic, all-knowing feathers, the feathers told him to make a whip of lion-skin that would bring whoever he whips with it back to life. He chose not to resurrect his murderous enemies. He did resurrect the princess, married her, and became king himself. I am unclear on what happened to the last king. He just isn’t mentioned in the closing action of the story. Make of that what you will. [1]

Werelions, where are they now?

If you read the magnum opus that was my article on weretigers, you might be either disappointed or relieved that this installment in the series is so much shorter. Personally, I’m a little bit of both. I struggled to find reliable resources on this topic. Most sources just seemed to be repeating each other, and I wanted to provide better information than that. The result is a higher-quality but rather short article. If you do want to get more werelions in your life, here are some examples of werelions in modern media. We see werewolves quite frequently, especially in paranormal content in the United States, but I don’t think I’ve ever seen or read anything with a werelion. Let’s see what’s out there, why don’t we?

Books

  • Beast by Krishna Udayasankar – a werelion is wreaking havoc in Mumbai, and an unsuspecting cop is on its trail
  • Daughter of Lions by Catherine Banks – daughter of the leader of a werelion pride experiences teen angst
  • Magic Bites by Ilona Andrews – magic is dying and Atlanta is overrun with monsters, plus shapeshifters
  • And a truly shocking number of erotic novels…

Games

  • Fire Emblem: Path of Radiance and Fire Emblem: Radiant Dawn feature a people called the Laguz, one tribe of which can transform into big wildcats, including lions.
  • Dungeons and Dragons has an official race of lion-like people called Leonin.
  • World of Warcraft druids can take lion or panther forms.

Works Cited

  1. Knappert, J. (1977). Mutipi and the werelion (Ronga). In Bantu Myths and Other Tales (pp. 54- 58). E.J. Brill.
  2. Gouldsbury, C. and Sheane, H. (1911). The great plateau of northern Rhodesia: Being some impressions of the Tanganyika plateau (pp. 200). Edward Arnold. PDF
  3. Werner, A. (1933). Chapter XIII: Of werewolves, halfmen, gnomes, goblins, and other monsters. In Myths and legends of the Bantu. George G. Harrap and Co., Ltd. Accessed at https://www.sacred-texts.com/afr/mlb/mlb15.htm

Published November 22, 2020

Culture

Werecats, Part I: The Mystic Weretiger

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Man with painted tiger stripes
Photo by Charles Crawshaw World Peace in 2020 from Pexels

Werelions, weretigers, werejaguars, oh my! That was my where my brain was at about thirty seconds into my research on ailuranthropy, or the phenomenon of humans transforming into big cats (from the Greek ailouros “cat” and anthropos “human”). I hadn’t intended for this to be a series, but I quickly realized that werecats were a much larger topic than I had expected. This means I get to draw the Halloween blogs out longer, so I can’t complain. We will begin the series with the cat people that stalk human prey in the folktales of Asia: the weretigers.

Weretigers are the most frequently occurring kind of were-creature in the folklore of tropical Asia (1, 2). Tales about these creatures can be found in the mythology of China, India, Malaysia, and Indonesia, just to name a few. Humans have lived alongside tigers in this part of the world forever, really, although the decline of tigers has tragically made that less the case. In Europe, the most fearsome natural predator was the wolf, giving rise to stories of humans becoming wolves. There was no more appropriate metaphor for the animal within. Where the tiger is the king of the jungle, however, humans become cats.

Under Their Skin

The stories about weretigers are almost as different as the people and places where they are told. In only some of them are people bodily transformed into tigers. Often, the transformation takes place once the weretiger puts on a tiger skin with or without an accompanying incantation (3, 4). The European werewolf is frequently made the same way. There are some stories where people became weretigers accidentally after slipping into a tiger skin (4). One story tells of a Chinese monk who put on a tiger skin to play a practical joke, only to become a tiger and remain so for a year (4).

Alternatively, a person may become a weretiger by burning incense, reciting an incantation, and throwing his clothes off (5, 6). By shedding their clothes, they are shedding their personhood, in a sense, and once naked they transform into a tiger (5, 6). If someone steals the clothes, the weretiger will not be able to turn back into a human (6).

White tiger on grass
Photo by Anthony from Pexels

My personal favorite tactic, however, involves circling an anthill seven times clockwise while repeating a secret charm (7). This lacks the obvious symbolism of stripping off one’s humanity but is infinitely more bizarre. To turn back, simply do the opposite: walk around the anthill counterclockwise seven times while repeating the charm (7). Does this mean weretigers can talk? Does it have to be the same anthill? I have no idea, but I love it.

Some transformation rituals require one or more accomplices. In one, a practitioner recites particular spells, or mantras, over a measure of water (1). An assistant then sprinkles the water over the weretiger to effect the transformation (1). To change them back, the assistant sprinkles the water over them again (1). In some versions of the throw-off-the-clothes ritual, the only way to become human again is for someone to hurl the weretiger’s clothes at them while they are in tiger form (1). If a weretiger’s accomplice is unable or unwilling to help for whatever reason, they will be stuck as a tiger, presumably for the rest of their life (5).

Tiger Spirits

In some beliefs, a person becomes a weretiger when they are possessed by a spirit. The Lisu people of Laos believe that weretigers can possess people and may then possess their family members in turn (8). They also believe that those who are thus possessed will put “the essence of the weretiger” into a valuable object and leave it lying on a path (8). Whoever picks the object up will be possessed, too (8). I can only imagine the chain reactions of weretiger possession that ensue from a single Weretiger Zero.

On the other hand, there is a folk belief in Malaysia that certain families are already tigrine by birth (9). After death, they become tigers that somewhat resemble their human selves and remember their human lives (9). These tigers visit their humans relatives during festivals or times of great turmoil and can sometimes be called upon for help (9). When a human member of the family is about to die, at least one of their tiger relatives will come to hold vigil outside the house, waiting (9). A few days after death, their grave will be found opened, and a representative tiger will appear in the nearby forest (9). The journal article describing this belief was written in 1922 (9), so it is possible that the lore has died out by now. Unless, of course, it’s not just a myth.

Dreamtime Weretiger

Tiger in snow
Image by Marcel Langthim from Pixabay

Interestingly, there is a major type of weretiger that does not involve any metamorphosis at all. These weretigers leave their human bodies in their sleep to become tigers. In the lore of certain indigenous peoples of India and south Asia, some individuals naturally have the ability to be this kind of weretiger (1, 2). When these weretigers dream, a part of their soul travels into the jungle and joins with the soul of a live tiger (1, 2). The weretiger then acts out the desires of the sleeping human, which can sometimes result in the property destruction, injury, or death of the weretiger’s enemies (1, 2).

The weretiger and their tiger have a close relationship. They always migrates into the same tiger, night after night, for their entire life (1, 2). If the tiger is wounded or killed while bonded with the weretiger’s soul, the human body suffers the same fate (1, 2).

The Khasis of northeastern India ascribe to a variation of the dreaming weretiger belief. Khasis people believe that humans are divided into the body, the soul, and the rngiew (10, 11). The rngiew is a sort of essential, divine essence integral to each person (10). When the weretigers sleep, their rngiew leave their bodies and transform into tigers in the spirit world (10, 11). However, the spirit world and the physical one are not entirely separate, and the weretigers are able to interact with the material plane as tigers (10, 11). People either inherit the ability to be a weretiger or are chosen to receive the gift by a deity (10).

The Good, the Bad, and the Stripey

I have read a lot of old werewolf stories because that’s the kind of thing I do for fun. I can’t think of a single one where the werewolf was presented as anything other than a force for evil. Modern representations are much more varied, of course, but folklore decidedly depicts werewolves as bad dogs. Weretigers, however, are painted in many different lights.

Tiger in jungle
Image by Capri23auto from Pixabay

Sometimes, weretigers engender terror. They are thought to kill people and livestock (1, 2, 4). But other times they are protectors (9, 10, 11, 12). The Khasis weretigers have a sacred duty to protect their communities from harm, including other weretigers (11). There are Chinese myths about weretigers who are the instruments of heaven, meting out divine fate whether they want to or not (4).

Sumatrans believe that were-tiger homes are made of roofs thatched with human hair, walls made of human skin, and beams of human bones.

Joane le Roux, New Straits Times

Weretigers have a complicated place in the folklore of Asia, both within and between cultures. Should you want to know how to recognize them, just to be safe, there are a few ways. One of the most common signs is that weretigers lack the groove on the upper lip (5, 9). A person caught vomiting chicken feathers is considered a likely suspect for a weretiger (12). I would suggest that that should make them suspect for something regardless. The tracks of the weretiger are distinctive because there are five toes on each paw, whereas normal tigers, like all cats, leave prints with five toes on the front paws and four on the back (10, 11). If you see large cat prints with any number of toes, perhaps the best practice is to depart with haste rather than start counting.

Works Cited

  1. Brighenti, F. (2017). Traditional beliefs about weretigers among the Garos of Meghalaya. eTropic, 16(1), 96-111. PDF
  2. Brighenti, F. (2011). Kradi mliva: The phenomenon of tiger-transformation in the traditional lore of the Kondh tribals of Orissa. Lokaratna, 4, 11-25. PDF
  3. Casal, U.A. (1959). The goblin fox and badger and other witch animals of Japan. Folklore Studies, 18, 1-93. doi: 10.2307/1177429.
  4. Hammond, C.E. (1992). Sacred metamorphosis: The weretiger and the shaman. Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 46(2/3), 235-255. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23658449
  5. Wessing, R. (1995). The last tiger in East Java: Symbolic continuity in ecological change. Asian Folklore Studies, 54(2), 191-218. doi: 10.2307/1178941
  6. Wessing, R. (1994). “Bangatowa,” “Patogu” and “Gaddhungan”: Perceptions of the tiger among the Madurese. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 25(2), 368-380. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20071663
  7. Biria, S.G.D. (1947). The Muria and their Ghotul. Oxford University Press.
  8. Worra, B.T. (2012, December 20). Pondering weretigers of Laos. On the Other Side of the Eye. http://thaoworra.blogspot.com/2012/12/pondering-weretigers-of-laos.html
  9. bin Ahmad, Z.A. (1922). The tiger-breed families. Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 85, 36-39. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41561390
  10. Lyngdoh, M. (2016). Tiger transformation among the Khasis of northeastern India: Belief worlds and shifting realities. Anthropos, 111(2), 649-658. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44791292
  11. Kharmawphlang, D. (2000). In search of tigermen: The were-tiger tradition of the Khasis. India International Centre Quaterly, 27(4), 160-176. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23005708
  12. le Roux, J. (2014, November 1). In pursuit of a were-tiger. New Strait Times. https://www.nst.com.my/news/2015/09/pursuit-were-tiger

Published October 26th, 2020

Culture

Cat Yokai: Japan’s Dancing Monster Cats

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Yokai is one of those words that is inevitably lost in translation. It is a combination of the Japanese characters 妖 (yo as in yogurt), meaning “attractive,” “bewitching,” or “calamity,” and 怪 (kai) meaning “mystery” or “wonder” [6]. It has been translated a lot of different ways in English. I popped it into Google Translate and got back “monster,” “devil,” “goblin,” “demon,” and “bogy.” I’ve heard others as well. None of these translations are incorrect, but they are all incomplete. Yokai encompass a wide range of supernatural entities, including ghosts, monsters, demons, deities, and many more. Humans assigned supernatural meaning to cats almost everywhere the two species crossed paths, so it’s hardly surprising that there are cat yokai.

Painting of three people and two dancing cats
Ume no haru gojūsantsugi (梅初春五十三駅) – from Wikimedia Commons

Bakeneko

With age comes wisdom. Magic powers, too, at least if you’re a cat. This is the legend of the bakeneko, meaning “changed cat” [2, 5, 7, 8]. Bakeneko are pet cats that have gained supernatural abilities. They are usually considered evil, but that isn’t always the case [1, 5, 7]. There are actually several ways that normal pet cats can become bakeneko, with reaching a great age being one of the most common. What that age is, exactly, varies by regional folklore [2]. Thirteen years is often the magic number [2, 5, 8].

Cats that grow to weigh at least one kan (8.25 lbs or 3.75 kg) or have a very long tail may also transform into bakeneko [1, 8]. It was also commonly believed that licking up a lot of lamp oil could turn a house cat into a bakeneko [2, 5, 8]. Cheap fish oils, like sardine oil, were used in lamps during the Japanese early modern period, so it was probably not unusual to see a cat drinking lamp oil, but it may have seemed like an unnatural thing for an animal to do [1, 2, 5].

Once a cat becomes a bakeneko, it may look no different than an ordinary cat, or it may begin to grow very large [8]. However, bakeneko are shapeshifters, frequently disguising themselves as humans, including their owners [1, 2, 5, 8]. In its natural, feline shape, a bakeneko is able to walk on its hind legs and speak human languages [1, 2, 5, 8]. They are known to dance, on two legs, sometimes with a towel or napkin on their head [1, 2, 5, 8]. Charming as that sounds, bakeneko can be quite dangerous. They can summon spectral fireballs; eat almost anything, even if it’s poisonous or bigger than they are; and reanimate corpses and manipulate them like puppets for all sorts of nefarious purposes [1, 2, 5, 8]. Bakeneko are generally considered a menace to anyone unfortunate enough to live with one, but they can actually be loyal and helpful companions as well.

Drawing of dancing cat
Bakeneko dancing with napkin on head, from the Buson Yōkai Emaki (蕪村妖怪絵巻) – from Wikimedia Commons

The lucky maneki neko, “beckoning cats,” are a type of beneficent bakeneko [1, 7]. In all the maneki neko legends, the cat does their owner a huge favor, bringing wealth or saving their life. Now many businesses display maneki neko statues to bring good fortune.

There are also stories of bakeneko getting revenge for a wronged owner [1]. Sometimes, bakeneko just want to live their lives. They may transform into a human and then live as a human would, not bothering anybody [1, 5]. In an odd tale from Aji Island and the Oki Islands, a bakeneko turned into a human and wanted to compete in sumo [2]. These yokai are complex creatures.

Nekomata

Nekomata, on the other hand, are evil, plain and simple. Nekomata is often translated as “forked cat,” but it may also mean “again cat,” have something to do with monkeys, or mean something entirely different that has been lost to time [4, 5, 10]. There are several different forms of the word, all sharing the same character for neko, “cat,” but with different characters after [4]. The first written mention of nekomata in Japan was in 1233 [10], so there has been a lot of time for the word to evolve. That first mention came when Fujiwara no Teika recorded in his journal that in August in Nanto, a nekomata killed and ate several people in one night [4, 5, 10]. He described the nekomata as having cat eyes but “a large body like a dog” [5, 10].

In the mountain recesses, there are those called nekomata, and people say that they eat humans…

Tsurezuregusa, Yoshida Kenko, c. 1331

At the time, there was no mention of supernatural powers, and it seems that these early nekomata were simply a feared predator, though whether myth or fact remains unknown [4, 11]. There is speculation that rabies or tigers imported from China may have been the culprit, but there is no way to know for sure [4]. With time, the mountain nekomata legends grew, literally. The size of the creatures increased over centuries of stories [5]. In an 1809 writing, it was said to be more than six feet long (1.8 m) and carrying a dog in its mouth [4, 5, 10, 11].

During the Edo Period (17th – mid-19th century), people began to believe that nekomata weren’t just beasts that haunted the deep mountain hollows, but things that could invade your own home [4, 5, 10, 11]. It came to be accepted that the tails of old cats would split into two, they would gain magic powers, and they would become the malevolent nekomata [4, 5, 9-11].

Nekomata have similar powers as bakeneko, and may even be considered a type of bakeneko or a next stage of the bakeneko, although this is not necesarrily the case. However, the nekomata is much stronger and has a particular desire to cause harm [9-11]. Sometimes they focus on those that wronged them during their former life as ordinary pets [10, 11]. Sometimes nekomata just want to cause death and destruction in general. Not only are their powers greater in strength than a bakeneko, but they are also able to blackmail and even enslave humans [9, 11].

Drawing of cat with two tails on hind legs
Nekomata and two admiring cats, illustrated by Toriyama Sekien – from Wikimedia Commons

Sadly, the fear of bakeneko and nekomata led people to take certain preventative measures when it came to their pets. They docked the tails of their kittens to prevent the transformation [1, 2, 10]. People often decided they would only keep a cat for a certain number of years, and then they would abandon it, lest their pet become a yokai and cause them harm [2, 11]. It was believed that killing a cat brings down a curse that lasts either seven generations or seven lives, so it was preferable to avoid creating bakeneko and nekomata in the first place [1, 4, 10]. Of course, an unknowable number of innocent cats were harmed by these well-intentioned practices.

Breeding of the Japanese Bobtail may have helped. It’s thought that the popularity of the breed might have been due to fear of bakeneko and nekomata, a fear that clearly wasn’t strong enough to stop people from wanting pet cats [1]. Today, there is much less fear. In fact, a bakeneko festival is held in Tokyo each year near Halloween, where people dress up like cats, march in a parade, and dance like bakeneko [7]. Click to learn more about the Kagurazaka Bakeneko Festival.

Works Cited

  1. Bakeneko. (n.d.). Academic. Retrieved October 9, 2020, from https://enacademic.com/dic.nsf/enwiki/2775702
  2. Bakeneko. (2020, October 7). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakeneko&oldid=982382332
  3. Casal, U.A. (1959). The Goblin Fox and Badger and Other Witch Animals of Japan. Folklore Studies, 18, 1-93. doi:10.2307/1177429
  4. Davisson, Z. (2012, April 21). Nekomata: The split-tailed cat. Hyakumonogatari Kaidankai. https://web.archive.org/web/20120708015623/http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/04/21/nekomata-the-split-tailed-cat/
  5. Davisson, Z. (2021). Kaibyo: The supernatural cats of Japan (2nd ed.). Mercuria Press: Portland, OR.
  6. Mao, Yuki. (2020). All About Yokai. https://sites.temple.edu/yuki/yokai/
  7. Matcha Admin. (2019, October 1). The Kagurazaka Bakeneko Festival: Become a cat and join the parade (C. Mischke, Trans.). Matcha. https://matcha-jp.com/en/6661
  8. Meyer, M. (n.d.). Bakeneko. Yokai.com. http://yokai.com/bakeneko/
  9. Meyer, M. (n.d.). Nekomata. Yokai.com. http://yokai.com/nekomata/
  10. Nekomata. (2020, September 9). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nekomata&oldid=977577652
  11. Nekomata: An evil cat in Japanese folklore. (2017, June 27). Yabai. http://yabai.com/p/2318

Published October 11th, 2020

Updated July 24, 2022

Culture

Maneki Neko: The Meaning of Lucky Cat Statues

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Gold cat statue
Image by Tania Van den Berghen from Pixabay

If it wasn’t obvious yet, I live in the United States. If you have ever been to a Japanese, Chinese, or Thai restaurant here, you have probably seen a Maneki Neko, usually called a Lucky Cat in the States. I picture a little gold cat statue on a counter, red collar painted around its neck, one paw raised and waving rhythmically forward and back while the other paw grasps a coin. However, Maneki Neko are not just shiny tchotchkes. They have a rich history and folkloric tradition.

The Dawn of Maneki Neko

Maneki Neko, Japanese for “beckoning cat(s),” originated in Japan during the Edo period (17th to mid-19th century) (1, 2, 3). They didn’t begin to appear widely in publications and business until the Meji period (1868-1912), possibly as an indirect consequence of the opening of Japan to the West (1). Before Japan opened, Japanese brothels included good-luck shelves that displayed phallic luck charms (1). The Meji government wanted to modernize Japan and give a positive image to the primarily Christian West, so one of their measures was to outlaw these phallic luck charms (1). When those charms were forced to disappear, they were replaced with Maneki Neko (1). Other businesses began to take up the practice of setting out Maneki Neko as luck charms, and they continue to do so today (1).

The question still remains, who first created the Maneki Neko, and why? It may be impossible to know for certain. Several legends attempt to explain the origins of these adorable good luck charms. In one story, there was once a very poor old woman who lived with her cat in Imado, which is now eastern Tokyo (1, 3). Her poverty forced her to either sell or abandon her cat, depending upon the version of the story (1, 3). But her cat must not have held that against her, because soon thereafter the cat appeared to her in a dream and told her to make a clay statue in its image (1, 3). When she did, people began to ask if they could buy the statue (1). The old woman was lifted from her poverty by making and selling statues of her former pet (1, 3).

Another legend also involves a loyal and beloved pet, but is rather more gruesome. During the Edo period, there was a Tokyo courtesan who had a pet cat that she treasured (1). One day, the cat began clawing at her kimono, preventing the courtesan from taking another step (1, 2, 3). The owner of the brothel believed the cat must be possessed, and cut off the cat’s head with his sword (1, 2, 3). The head flew through the air and struck a snake that was poised to bite the courtesan (1, 2, 3). The cat’s fangs pierced and killed the snake, saving the courtesan (2). As might be expected, the courtesan was distraught at the death of her cat, so one of her customers carved her a statue of the cat to cheer her up (1, 2, 3).

The most popular tale about Maneki Neko, if true, could explain their name and basic design. In the Setagaya District of Tokyo, there is a temple called Gotokuji (4, 5). In the 17th century, it wasn’t much, and it was overseen by a poor monk with barely enough money to feed himself and kind of manage the temple (1, 5). Even so, he had a temple cat he loved so much that he shared what little food he had with it (1, 5). One day, there came up a rain storm, and a man came into the temple for shelter (1-5). He introduced himself as Lord Ii Naotaka of Hikone District, near Kyoto, and explained that he had seen a cat near the temple beckoning him inside (1, 4, 5).

White cat statues
Maneki Neko at Gotokuji – Photo by Alain Pham on Unsplash

In some versions of the story, Naotaka had been sheltering under a tree at first, and after he followed the cat the tree was struck by lightening, so he is grateful to the cat for saving his life (1, 2, 3). In others, he is simply glad to be out of the storm and sees it all as the will of Buddha (5). Whatever his reasons, Naotaka became the temple’s patron and made it prosper (1-5). The temple was renamed Gotokuji in 1697 (1) in honor of Naotaka’s posthumous Buddhist name (4). As for the cat, it remained at the temple for the rest of its days and was buried in the cemetery when it died, with the first Maneki Neko made to honor its memory (1). The cat was deified as Shobyo Kannon, Goddess of Mercy (4, 5).

Gotokuji still stands today as both a Buddhist temple and a tourist attraction. It is absolutely covered with Maneki Neko. The Maneki Neko made and sold there are white, with the right paw raised, wearing a red collar with a gold bell (4, 5). The idea is to buy a Maneki Neko at the temple, say a wish or a prayer over it–or even write one on it–and then leave it at the temple (4). The result is a tremendous number of Maneki Neko covering every available surface in a certain part of the temple. This is a place where I hope to one day take many pictures.

The Design of Maneki Neko

Maneki Neko all share a basic shape, but their color, accessories, and which paw they’re raising all determine exactly what that particular charm means. If the right paw is lifted, the charm attracts money and good fortune (1, 2, 3). If the left paw is up, then it attracts customers or people (1, 2, 3). Occasionally you will see a Maneki Neko with both paws raised, which is said to protect the home or business (2, 3). Higher paws are supposed to extend the reach of the lucky magic and make the charms luckier (1, 3). That’s why Maneki Neko sometimes have an improbably long foreleg.

Assorted maneki neko
Maneki Neko come in many shapes, sizes, and colors – Image by Emanuel Golabiewski from Pixabay

The most common color of Maneki Neko is a mostly-white calico, which is considered the luckiest color (1, 2, 3). I read that this is because calico toms are so incredibly rare (1), but tortoiseshell and calico she-cats are quite common, so does this mean that Maneki Neko are supposed to be toms? There was no further explanation. White Maneki Neko may represent purity, happiness, and positivity (1, 2, 3). Black may ward off evil and/or disease (1, 2, 3). Gold, the color I am most used to seeing in the United States, brings wealth (1, 2, 3). There are many less common colors with more specific purposes as well:

  • Red: combat illness or bring luck in love (1, 2, 3, 5)
  • Pink: luck in love (1, 5)
  • Green: good health or academic success (2, 3, 5)
  • Yellow: good health (3)
  • Purple: prosperity and opportunity (3)

What the cat is wearing or holding can also affect its meaning. Most Maneki Neko wear a red collar with a bell, a throw-back to the Edo period when cats were a very expensive pet exclusive to the wealthy (1). Cat people would put collars made from the red hichirimen flower, strung with small bells, onto their cats so that they could keep track of them (1). Maneki Neko typically hold a gold coin in their free paw to attract wealth (1, 2, 3). However, they may hold something different, or even nothing at all in the case of the Gotokuji cats. Sometimes they hold a little hammer, or money mallet, which is supposed to attract wealth when shaken (2). They might hold a fish, usually a carp, because it is a symbol of abundance and good luck (2). Other symbols of wealth and good luck found in their paws include marbles or gems, gourds, daikon radishes, prayer tablets, and ingots (2).

If you want to check out all the different designs of Maneki Neko with your own eyes and you happen to live in Ohio, USA, not Japan, then you’re in luck! The Lucky Cat Museum is located in Cincinnati, Ohio. Visit their website for hours and location if you would like to pay them a visit.

Works Cited

  1. Schumacher, M. (2011, April). Maneki neko 招き猫 or 招猫: Lucky beckoning cat or inviting cat. Japanese Buddhist Statuary. https://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/maneki-neko.shtml
  2. Tse, H. (2020, January 2) 5 interesting facts about maneki neko cats aka lucky cats. Catster. https://www.catster.com/lifestyle/maneki-neko-fortune-cat-5-interesting-facts
  3. Greg. (2017, February 27). Feline folklore: Decoding the lucky cat. Japan Craft. https://japancraft.co.uk/blog/decoding-the-lucky-cat/
  4. Japan Inside. (n.d.). The “lucky cat” temple: Gotokuji. https://japaninsides.com/the-lucky-cat-temple-gotokuji/
  5. Mellin, J. (2018, July 19). Inside the Tokyo temple where the ‘waving cat’ was born. CNN Travel. https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/maneki-neko-temple-tokyo/index.html

Published September 27th, 2020

Updated October 3rd, 2020

Culture

Torre Argentina Cat Sanctuary: Bringing New Life to Roman Ruins

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Roman ruins
Image by vikgr from Pixabay

In ancient cities, it isn’t unusual for the new to be continually built on top of the old. Rome, one of the most important cities in world history, is no exception. Important archaeological finds are often hiding right under the feet of modern Romans. In 1929, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini unearthed a major archaeological site as part of a campaign to link his regime with the glory and strength of the ancient Roman empire (1). The ruins of the Roman buildings were found twenty feet (6 m) below the current street level. Known as Largo di Torre Argentina, the complex contain four temples and part of the Theatre of Pompey. If the Theatre of Pompey rings a vague bell from your history or Latin classes, that’s probably because Julius Ceasar was assassinated on its steps on the Ides of March (March 15th), 44 BCE.

You might be wondering why I’m giving you a lesson in Italian history on a cat blog. It’s not just because it makes me feel like six years of Latin weren’t a total waste of time. As soon as Largo di Torre Argentina was uncovered, the many stray cats of Rome moved in to the newly unused space. The cats were soon followed by the gattare, or “cat ladies.” Gattare are an Italian tradition (2). The typical gattara is an older woman who sets out food for neighborhood cats (2). In some cities, the gattare are very organized, using volunteer programs to train new gattare and networking with each other to make sure the entire city is covered (2). The gattare who began feeding the cats at Largo di Torre Argentina, and eventually sterilizing and vaccinating them, got so organized that they started a cat sanctuary in 1994 right there in the ruins (3, 4).

Okay, this is actually the ruins of a Greek temple, but there are only so many royalty-free pictures out there – Image by Dimitri Houtteman from Pixabay

Torre Argentina Cat Sanctuary officially began with about 90 cats (3). It was common for locals to abandon their pets even if they were just going on vacation, and a pervasive sentiment that sterilization is cruel and unnatural meant a lot of unwanted kittens were put on on the street as well (3). So the number of cats was on the rise, but the resources at hand to care for them were not keeping pace. There was little money to pay for food and medications, as the gattare were paying for everything themselves (3). The only work and storage space was a small, low-ceilinged sort of cave accidentally created under the street by construction (3).

Circumstances have changed significantly for the sanctuary since other organizations and individual donors have made it possible for regular food and veterinary care to be the norm (3). However, tensions have arisen over the presence of a cat sanctuary in such an important historical site. Archaeologists have voiced concerns about the cats negatively affecting the conservation of the site and being and affront to the dignity of the ancient holy space (3, 4). Personally, I find the latter ridiculous and the former irrelevant. Removing the sanctuary would not get rid of the cats. Cats are going to go wherever they see fit. However, the National Archeological Department didn’t see it that way when they launched a campaign to evict the Torre Argentina Cat Sanctuary in 2012 (2, 3, 4). Petitions in favor of the sanctuary collected over 30,000 signatures, and no eviction took place (3, 4).

Torre Argentina Cat Sanctuary has always struggled to exist inside an archaeological site, but they do so because they believe that the cats there need them. There can be no doubt that the organization has done incredible things for the cats of Largo di Torre Argentina. They take in cats of all ages and even take on the veterinary care of cats with chronic conditions, disabilities, and injuries (3, 5). The sanctuary now has a foster program for kittens and an adoption program for local and international adoptions. Cats can also be sponsored as a fun way to help the sanctuary out.

Cats live both in the now much-improved indoor space and outside in the ruins. There is a gift shop inside. The sanctuary is open daily from noon to 6 pm. The ruins are mostly off-limits to visitors, visible only from above. Rome’s mayor announced plans in 2019 to restore the ruins and make them visitor-friendly in time to open by 2021, thanks to $1.1 million in funding from the fashion house Bulgari (1). Given how 2020 has gone, though, who knows what will happen with that project. The ruins may remain the haunt of cats and cat ladies.

Largo di Torre Argentina is at the corner of Via Florida & Via di Torre Argentina in Rome, Italy. To learn more about Torre Argentina Roman Cat Sanctuary, visit http://www.romancats.com/torreargentina/en/ and click on the icon for Largo di Torre Argentina. Please consider supporting the sanctuary if you are able. They also have a YouTube channel where you can meet some of the cats.

Works Cited

  1. Daley, J. (2019, March 5). Site where Julius Caesar was stabbed will finally open to the public. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/site-where-julius-caesar-was-stabbed-will-finally-open-public-180971613/
  2. Spiegel, J. (2017). Italy roundtable: Caesar’s cats. Italy Explained. https://italyexplained.com/italy-roundtable-caesars-cats/
  3. Torre Argentina Roman Cat Sanctuary. (n.d.). http://www.romancats.com/torreargentina/en/introduction.php
  4. Pasquale, M. (2018, May 9). This cat sanctuary in old Roman ruins is a must-visit. The Culture Trip. https://theculturetrip.com/europe/italy/articles/this-cat-sanctuary-in-old-roman-ruins-is-a-must-visit/
  5. Black, A. (n.d.). Torre Argentina (Roman cat sanctuary). Atlas Obscura. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/torre-argentina-roman-cat-sanctuary

Published September 13th, 2020

Updated October 3rd, 2020

Culture

Why do we say “It’s raining cats and dogs”?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Rain of fish
Pluie de poissons (Rain of Fish) by Olaus Magnus, 1555 – Public Domain from Wikipedia

It’s a dark and stormy weekend, so I felt inspired to investigate the origins of a strange English-language idiom: It’s raining cats and dogs. Cats feature in quite a few English idioms, and all of the ones that spring to mind are really rather strange. This is probably a topic I’ll come back to because I find it fascinating. For anyone who isn’t familiar with the phrase, to say it’s raining cats and dogs means it is absolutely pouring down rain.

But what does this have to do with our pets? Certainly nothing obvious. There have been real life reports of fish, frogs, and other small animals falling from the sky during storms. Seriously, Google it. It’s fascinating. But as far as I know, no one has ever seen cats and/or dogs raining from the heavens. So why would we say it’s raining cats and dogs instead of fish and frogs?

The first known instance of “raining cats and dogs” was in 1738 in Jonathan Swift’s A Complete Collection of Polite and Ingenious Conversation, where he wrote “I know Sir John will go, though he was sure it would rain cats and dogs” (1, 2, 3). However, it may have been in common use before that, and there are literary instances of the phrase in other forms at least as early as the 17th century (1, 2, 3).

As is often the case with language, trying to track down the origin of this phrase has proved tricky. The older and more widely-disseminated an idiom becomes, the murkier its background tends to get. Language naturally changes over time, and the original turn of phrase is often lost. There are several theories that “raining cats and dogs” is what’s known as a corruption of a foreign phrase. That is to say, a phrase in one language is repeated verbatim by native speakers of another, and it evolves into something else.

Waterfall
Image by Sven Lachmann from Pixabay

One of these theories claims that our modern idiom began with the Greek phrase kata doksa, which means “contrary to expectation” (1). It is sometimes used to describe heavy rain, along with other unexpected things (1). This phrase does bear an audiological resemblance to “cats and dogs,” and the use to describe rain in its native language is promising. However, this requires kata doksa to have made its way into English usage. If this happened, no one has been able to track that journey (1).

The Greek word for the thunderous cataracts of the Nile river, Katadoupoi, has also been suggested as a possible source (1). In this case, an obscure French word for waterfall, catadoupe, is said to be the link between the Greek and the English (2, 3, 4). English speakers are thought to have turned the French word into “cats and dogs” over time (4), although some think it rather a stretch to find dogs anywhere in catadoupe (1, 3).

With some reverse-engineering, Italian and Dutch phrases have also been put forth as possible origins, but without solid evidence (1). Another popular theory discards linguistic evolution in favor of Nordic mythology. This school of thought posits that dogs/wolves were associated with Odin, god of storms, thus the canines were themselves associated with stormy winds (1, 2, 3, 4). Cats, then were said to symbolize rain or be thought to bring rain (1, 2, 3, 4). This was either the superstition of sailors (4) or because cats were associated with witches, who rode the storms in the form of their feline familiars (1, 3).

As interesting as that is, the mythology doesn’t support it. Odin is not a storm god (1). Perhaps someone was thinking of Thor? Moreover, the animals associated with Odin are a horse and two ravens, not dogs and wolves (1). While cats and witchcraft became strongly linked in European folklore, they aren’t a part of Nordic myth like this popular theory would have us believe (1).

Maybe the origins of this bizarre idiom aren’t to be found abroad, but rather in England, its native soil. A rather practical but very depressing theory is based on the poor urban infrastructure of 17th century England. The rivers and even the streets were essentially both open sewers and landfills. When animals died, people threw them in the waterways or left them out on the street. Stray and feral cats and dogs were everywhere, too. They were left where they died. Without storm drains, it’s possible that some animals drowned during heavy downpours, contributing to the number of dead cats and dogs that would be seen floating in the streets and rivers during or after a heavy rain (1, 3, 4).

This sad scene may have prompted some people to think that the animals had actually fallen with the rain or at least to make an association between the two phenomena (1, 4). However, people would be used to seeing dead animals on the streets and in their waterways during dry weather as well, so this idea is a bit of a stretch (3). Still, the 1600s were a strange time, and people came up with a lot of strange ideas.

Wet white and black cat on street
Image by Dimitris Vetsikas from Pixabay

Another suggestion, which I remember hearing somewhere, refers to conditions in even earlier times. It starts with thatched roofs. A thatched roof is made of layers of dried vegetation, forming an insulating and waterproof covering. This was the traditional form of roofing in many parts of the world, including England in centuries past.

The story goes that small animals and even family pets or stray cats and dogs would take shelter from inclement weather in the thatching of English homes (5). If the rain came down hard enough they would slip and fall out, thus making it seem to rain cats and dogs (3). This hypothesis seems to have primarily circulated in one of those fun fact emails that used to be so popular (3). It probably has no basis in reality. That small animals like bugs and mice lived in thatched roofs is likely, but to suppose anything as large as cats and dogs did is pretty ridiculous (3). I am embarrassed to admit that I believed this rumor for years nonetheless.

Perhaps trying to find an explanation for this phrase is besides the point, though. One of the more common theories is that the idiom has no complicated origin, but is simply a silly and imaginative phrase that someone came up with to describe heavy rain (2, 3, 4). If we consider some of the idioms in other languages used to refer to such deluges, this starts to make sense. Some, such as “it’s raining buckets” or “jugs” are pretty straightforward, as they suggest water pouring out of a vessel (5). Others are much more creative. Below are some of my favorites (5, 6):

  • Welsh: It’s raining old women and sticks
  • Slovak: Tractors are falling
  • Greek: It’s raining chair legs
  • Spanish: It’s raining toads and snakes
  • Aussie English: It’s a frog strangler

And many, many more of varying degrees of weirdness. Maybe there is a reasonable explanation for why we say it’s raining cats and dogs, as it is outside my window right now. Maybe there’s an explanation for all the strange things people say about the weather. Or maybe there’s no really reason for any of it besides human creativity. Probably no one will ever know for sure. Personally, I’m glad there aren’t any tractors falling.

Works Cited

  1. Liberman, A. (2007, March 21). Raining cats and dogs. Oxford University Press Blog. https://blog.oup.com/2007/03/raining_cats_an/
  2. Quinion, M. (2007, December 29). Raining cats and dogs. World Wide Words. http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-rai1.htm/
  3. Martin, G. (n.d.). Raining cats and dogs. The Phrase Finder. https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/raining-cats-and-dogs.html
  4. Brasch, R. and Brasch, L. (2006). How did it begin: The origins of our curious customs and superstitions. HarperCollins Australia.
  5. Ager, S. (n.d.). It’s raining cats and dogs. Omniglot. https://www.omniglot.com/language/idioms/rain.php
  6. Raining cats and dogs. (2020, August 15). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raining_cats_and_dogs

Published August 16th, 2020

Updated December 7th, 2020