Breed Profiles

Abyssinian: Pharaoh’s Treasure

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Meredith Hemphill

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Two brown Abyssinian cats on kitchen chair
Royalty in the kitchen – Image by Dmitry Tsapenko from Pixabay

Ancient Egyptian art is full of regal cats with lithe, muscular bodies, arched necks, large, wildcat ears, and almond-shaped eyes. It is no surprise that the Abyssinian breed is widely believed to be the descendants of the cats of the ancient Egyptians, held in such high regard thousands of years ago. The resemblance is uncanny. Although it is a myth that Abyssinians are the cats of the Pharaohs, this breed has no problem commanding your attention in its own right.

Abyssinian Imports

The first record of an Abyssinian cat comes from the January 27th, 1872 issue of Harper’s Weekly in a report on the 1871 Crystal Palace Cat Show [1]. A she-cat named either Zulu or Zula took third place. She was described as an Abyssinian, “captured in the late Abyssinian war” [1]. An illustration is provided, which shows a cat with tabby facial markings but the ticked coat typical of Abyssinians [1]. Otherwise, however, Zulu does not look like the Abyssinian as we know it today, having rather small ears and a rounder face [1, 2].

Abyssinia is an old name for Ethiopia. The story goes that a British Captain brought Zulu home from Abyssinia in the 1860s and began to breed her when her unusual ticked coat was so well-received in Britain. Because of her cat show win, we know that Zulu existed, but whether she is the mother of the breed is contested. She may have been to begin with. There is a theory that Zulu was used to begin the breed, but her line died out, and other cats with ticked coats, perhaps the British “Bunny cats” with similar markings, were bred to re-establish the breed [2]. Genetic evidence links Abyssinians to Southeast Asian and Western European cat populations [3]. This had led to the idea that British and Dutch traders may have brought the breed’s progenitors from Indian or Indonesian ports [4].

Breed Characteristics

Appearance

Mother Abyssinian cat with kitten on sofa
Image by Dmitry Tsapenko from Pixabay

The Abyssinian today is notable for the ticked coat that has distinguished it all along. Ticked or agouti fur is related to the tabby pattern (see my article on coat pattern genetics). There are no tabby stripes, only the tabby M on the forehead, but each individual hair is striped with alternating bands of color. Abyssinians have a darker band of fur along their spine and a lighter underside. They are best known in their ruddy (reddish-brown) coloration, but can also be red, blue, or fawn. Their fur is short, dense, and silky. Long-haired Abyssinians do crop up, but they are considered a separate breed, the Somali.

Their patterning reminds some people of a wildcat, an idea reinforced by the Abyssinian’s shape. The breed looks a lot like the ancestor of domestic cats, Felis lybica. They have a muscular body, wedge-shaped head, and large, alert ears that give them a very attentive appearance. The legs are slim and the tail long and tapering. Their almond-shaped eyes are often surrounded by dark lines and may be green or gold. Despite an aspect of wildness, Abyssinian cats are 100% domestic cat. They are not, however, likely to be a lap cat.

Personality

Abyssinians are playful, social, and very athletic. They are known for a love of climbing and a high degree of intelligence that can get them into mischief if they’re bored. They are very loyal to their people and perform all sorts of antics to get their attention. Because they are so energetic, they don’t usually like to be cuddly, but they do like to be around and involved in whatever is going on. They are usually good with other pets and with children. They can get bored and distressed if left alone for long periods of time, so in a house where everyone needs to leave for work and school they will probably need an animal companion and plenty of toys to keep them busy. Puzzle toys are fantastic for challenging their active brains as well as their active bodies.

These cats are fast learners. This makes them great at learning tricks, but it also makes them good at learning how to get into trouble. And they have a knack for training their people to do what they want. Abyssinians are delightful companions, but they do need lots of stimulation and a watchful eye to keep them out of mischief!

Abyssinian antics

Health

As with any breed, there are some health concerns with Abyssinians. Their athletic nature typically fends off obesity and keeps them fit, but there are some inherited disorders in the breed that even their great athleticism cannot counter. Progressive retinal atrophy, an eye disease which causes blindness, is associated with the breed [5]. Abyssinian cats have known risks of developing early periodontal disease; hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; patellar luxation, a hereditary dislocation of the kneecap, which may be surgically corrected; renal amyloidosis, a hereditary disease that leads to kidney failure; and hyperesthesia syndrome, a neurological disorder that causes excessive grooming [4, 6].

Abyssinians are particularly known for having the mutation for pyruvate kinase deficiency in their gene pool. Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme required for the normal functioning of red blood cells [7]. Cats with the deficiency develop intermittent anemia, which may begin anywhere from the age of six months to twelve years [7]. Fortunately, a test is available for the mutation that causes pyruvate kinase deficiency, so the disease can be removed from gene pools [7]. However, there is no definitive treatment for the disease, so even if the breeder says that their bloodline is free of the disorder, it is safest to have your cat tested [7].

Abyssinian cats may not have sunned themselves beside the Nile thousands of years ago, but they are no less regal for having more recent and probably rather mundane origins. As the Egyptians well understood, there is nothing prosaic about a cat. Should you choose to bring an Abyssinian into your family, they will be sure to teach you that themself.

Fun Facts

  • The first cat genome to be sequenced came from an Abyssinian named Cinnamon [6, 8].
  • Two Abyssinians named Amber and Rumpler co-starred as Jake, the alien cat in the 1978 film The Cat from Outer Space [9].
  • In 2019, the Cat Fanciers’ Association ranked Abyssinians their #8 most popular cat. The breed was one of their six founders in 1906 [10].

Works Cited

  1. Macquoid, P. (1872, January 27). An afternoon with the cats. Harper’s Weekly, 89-90.
  2. Abyssinian. (n.d.). Petfinder. https://www.petfinder.com/cat-breeds/abyssinian/
  3. Lipinski, M.J., Froenicke, L., Baysac, K.C., et al. (2008). The ascent of cat breeds: Genetic evaluations of breeds and worldwide random-bred populations. Genomics, 91(1), 12-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.10.009
  4. Cat Time. (n.d.). Abyssinian. https://cattime.com/cat-breeds/abyssinian-cats
  5. Narfstrōm, K. (1983). Hereditary progressive retinal atrophy in the Abyssinian cat. Journal of Heredity, 74(4), 273-276. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a109782
  6. Basepaws. (2019, March 5). Abyssinian – Meet the miniature cougar. https://www.basepaws.com/blog/abyssinian-cat-breed/
  7. Vetstreet. (n.d.). Abyssinian. http://www.vetstreet.com/cats/abyssinian#health
  8. Pontius, J.U., Mullikin, J.C., Smith, D.R., et al. (2007). Initial sequence and comparative analysis of the cat genome. Genome Research, 17, 1675-1689. https://genome.cshlp.org/content/17/11/1675.short
  9. VCA Hospitals (n.d.). Abyssinian. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/cat-breeds/abyssinian
  10. Cat Fanciers’ Association. (2020, February 9) The Cat Fanciers’ Association announces most popular breeds for 2019. https://cfa.org/cfa-news-releases/top-breeds-2019/

Published June 28th, 2020

Updated July 20, 2022

Cat Care

Feline Heartworm Disease

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

To quote Cats the musical, “A cat is not a dog.” This is a fact that is both obvious and often overlooked. Sometimes, cats and dogs are subject to the same illnesses, but that does not mean that they will have the same symptoms or can receive the same treatments. Heartworm disease is a prime example.

Heartworm lifecycle
Heartworm lifecycle – American Heartworm Society

Heartworm is the common name for a blood-borne parasite, Dirofilaria immitis, which normally resides in the heart or attached large blood vessels of an infected animal (1). Mature female worms are 6-14 inches (15-36 centimetres) long and 1/8 inch (3 millimetres) wide, with mature males about half that size (1). They can infect dogs, cats, ferrets, and even, rarely, humans (2). Wild hosts include wolves, coyotes, foxes, and sea lions (2). The heartworm lifecycle begins when a mosquito bites an infected animal. The mosquito sucks up larvae circulating in the bloodstream, called microfilaria (2). The larvae develop into an infectious stage in the mosquito and then enter a new host animal when the mosquito bites it (2). The larvae migrate to the right side of the new host’s heart, where they will mature into adult worms over the next six months.

Heartworms can only be transmitted by mosquitos, not between individual animals, although having a significant population of infected hosts increases the likelihood of infection. Heartworms can live for 5-7 years in dogs and 2-4 years in cats (3), so the infection burden in an animal population can increase quickly over several mosquito seasons, and individuals can be infected multiple times. Heartworm infection is possible throughout the United States and in many other countries throughout the world. Thirty species of mosquito can carry the larvae (1). Infected wildlife or mosquitoes can travel great distances, and infected pets may be moved or adopted to new areas (1), so it is safest to assume that if there are mosquitoes where you live, there is a risk of heartworm.

Worms in plastic container
Preserved heartworms (I know, gross) – Image by Mirko Sajkov from Pixabay

Cats are not a very good host for heartworms. Canines are more hospitable to the parasites. Cats are infected 5-20% as often as dogs in the United State, depending upon the location (4), and the worms often fail to mature inside their bodies. Cats also are unlikely to have circulating microfilaria, and about a third of infections in cats have mature worms of the same sex and therefore produce no larvae at all (5). However, just because cats are an imperfect host does not mean that they cannot suffer severe or sometimes fatal symptoms.

Because cats are so much smaller than most dogs, they don’t have space for nearly as many of the parasites. They usually have only 1-3 mature worms, if they have any adults at all (2). Even a few worms is still considered a heavy infection, however, due to a cat’s size (3). And even a cat with only immature worms can still have significant disease. Although the term “heartworm disease” would suggest that the symptoms primarily affect the heart, in cats heartworms tend to cause respiratory problems. Heartworms, once mature, often take up residence in the pulmonary arteries that take blood from the heart to the lungs (6). There, worms can block the arteries, and dead and dying worms cause inflammation that compounds the problem (6).

Cats are subject to a complication known as heartworm-associated respiratory disease (HARD). The symptoms of HARD are rapid and labored breathing, coughing, and gagging. Unfortunately, these symptoms are also indicators of asthma or bronchitis, making it difficult to distinguish a heartworm infection from other forms of respiratory distress. Other symptoms of heartworm infection are also non-specific: vomiting, loss of appetite, and weight loss. In more severe cases, cats may have seizures, faint, struggle to walk, or accumulate fluid in their abdomens. Sometimes, the first sign that something is wrong is sudden death.

If heartworm is suspected in a cat, it is much harder to diagnose an infection than in a dog. It is typical to have to use multiple tests, often more than once (7). This is because the unusual nature of heartworm infection in cats makes many tests less reliable, including the antigen blood test which is the gold standard for dogs (7). The antigen test detects mature female worms, but will not detect an infection with only male or only immature worms (5). Because both of those types of infection are likely in cats, there is a high rate of false negative results. Still, 50-70% of cats are estimated to have at least one female worm, so the test is worth a try (7).

The antibody test is another blood test which detects the cat’s immune response to the parasite. While antigen tests can only detect an infection after 6-8 months, once the parasites are mature, the antibody test is effective as early as two months after infection (7). The antibody test can be highly sensitive, but it’s reliability decreases over time and may be affected by the use of certain medications to treat the infection (7). It can also still be positive after a cat has fought off an infection but the antibodies are still in their blood (7). As the antigen and antibody tests are both useful but have major pitfalls for cats, they are best used together.

If the results of the antigen and antibody blood tests are inconclusive, there are other options. The blood can be tested for circulating microfilaria, but less than 20% of cats will have microfilaria, and then only for 1-4 weeks, so the chances of finding them are low (1). X-rays and ultrasounds of the heart and its vessels can look for changes in the shape of the heart and pulmonary arteries (1). Sometimes an ultrasound will even find the mature worms themselves, although this is uncommon since cats have so few worms (1).

When a heartworm infection can be diagnosed, treatment is its own challenge. The medication used to treat heartworm in dogs, melarsomine dihydrochloride, has been shown to be toxic to cats (8, 9). Cats that appear to be doing well or have no symptoms at all may be allowed to continue fighting the infection on their own while being continually monitored and routinely re-tested (7). A course of steroids is a common treatment for cats that need more support.

If a cat is in need of acute care, a veterinarian will step in with treatments for shock and symptoms, such as oxygen, intravenous fluids and steroids, or bronchodilator drugs to open up their airways (7). The goal is to stabilize the cat until they can eliminate the infection on their own. As measures of last resort when an otherwise stable cat seems to have trouble doing this, the drug ivermectin can be given to kill adult worms, or worms may even be surgically removed (7).

Gray and white cat in red window box
Take care of your cat’s heart <3 – Image by Melinda Rózsa from Pixabay

Obviously, heartworm disease in cats is a complicated and difficult matter. The best treatment is prevention. Heartworm preventatives are available as monthly oral or topical medications, or an injection given every six months by your veterinarian (2). In the United States, heartworm medication is available by prescription only, but on the bright side, most heartworm medications also prevent intestinal parasites, and some are effective against external parasites like fleas and ticks (2). The American Heartworm Society recommends using year-round prevention even in places with cold winters, just in case (2). Indoor cats should be treated as well. Mosquitoes have a knack for making their way inside. About a third of cats with heartworm infections are indoor-only (1). You can’t underestimate the diabolical sneakiness of mosquitoes.

For more information about heartworms, visit the American Heartworm Society at https://www.heartwormsociety.org/ or any of the resources below.

Works Cited

  1. Barnette, C. and Ward, E. (n.d.). Heartworm disease in cats. VCA Animal Hospitals. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/heartworm-disease-in-cats
  2. American Heartworm Society. (n.d.). Heartworm in cats. https://www.heartwormsociety.org/heartworms-in-cats
  3. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (2019, August 22). Keep the worms out of your pet’s heart! The facts about heartworm disease. link here
  4. Ryan, W.G., et al. (1995). Prevalence of feline heartworm disease – a global review. American Heartworm Society. Proceedings of the heartworm symposium 1995, 79-86. https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19960805975
  5. Stannard, R. (n.d.). The facts about feline heartworm disease. Today’s Veterinary Practice. https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/the-facts-about-feline-heartworm-disease/
  6. Cornell Feline Health Center. (n.d.). Heartworm in cats. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. link here
  7. Jones, S., et al. (2014, October). Current feline guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis, and management of heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) infection in cats. American Heartworm Society. PDF
  8. McLeroy, L.W. (1998). Evaluation of melarsomine dihydrochloride for adulticidal activity against Dirofilaria immitis in cats with intravenously transplanted adult heartworms. MS Thesis, 95. University of Georgia, Athens, GA.
  9. Goodman, D.A. (1996). Evaluation of a single dose of melarsomine dihydrochloride for adulticidal activity against Dirofilaria immitis in cats. MS Thesis, 95. University of Georgia, Athens, GA.

Published June 21st, 2020

Updated November 4th, 2020

Culture, Science

Hemingway’s Cats and Feline Polydactyly

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

“One cat just leads to another.” –Ernest Hemingway

If you visit the Hemingway House in Key West, Florida, USA, you will find that there is something special about the historic home: it is crawling with cats. This is no feral cat colony run amok. The cats here are friendly and well-cared for, happy to be petted or to sit in the laps of guests (1). But if you do get up close with one of these cats, you may notice something special about them, too. About half of the cats at the Hemingway House have extra toes (1)!

White two-story house with trees
The Hemingway House – Image by Michelle Maria from Pixabay

Polydactyly is Greek for “many fingers.” It is a genetic condition that causes extra digits. The trait has been found in humans, mice, dogs, cats, horses, cattle, goats, sheep, springboks and birds (2). Polydactyly is seen more often in cats than any other mammal, although no one knows exactly why (3). Sailors used to consider cats with extra toes even luckier to have aboard than a normal cat. It was thought that they were better mousers and could keep their balance better on rough seas (4). It’s suspected that sailors and their lucky ship’s cats are the reason that polydactyl cats are particularly common along the northeast coast of North America (4), and the same may explain their prevalence in Key West.

According to legend, a nautical friend of Ernest Hemingway gifted him a white, six-toed cat variously named Snow White, Snowball, or Princess, depending upon who you ask. Snowball then snowballed into up to eighty cats living at his Key West home, many of which inherited her extra toes. Today, many cats around Key West, not just at the Hemingway House, are polydactyl.

The truth of this tale is uncertain. While Hemingway certainly had a fondness for cats, some friends and family members say there was no Snow White/Snowball/Princess, or that he never kept cats in Key West at all. Whatever the truth may be, when the Hemingway House was turned into a museum in 1964, it abounded with cats. The family who kept up the museum chose to care for the cats as well, however they might have come to be there. Hemingway named many of his cats after famous people, and this tradition is kept up with Hemingway’s cats today (1).

Orange and white polydactylcat on pile of shirts
Archie Andrews has taken over the gift shop. Count the toes carefully. He has an extra on each front paw! – Photo by Hemingway Home Museum

In honor of the legendary connection between Hemingway and the lucky six-toed cats, polydactyl cats are often called Hemingway cats no matter where they live. The average cat has five toes on each front paw (including the dew claw) and four toes on each hind paw, for a total of eighteen. Polydactyl cats can have a wide variety of numbers and positions of extra toes. The extras are usually on the front paws or on both the front and back, but rarely on only the hind paws. Two of the most common configurations are called “mitten paw” and “patty paw” (2).

“Mitten paws” have extra toes to the side of the normal toes, causing the cat to look like they have mittens on (4). “Patty paws” have extra toes in line with the other toes, resulting in paws that just appear rather large (2). However, other configurations are possible. Polydactyly is a complex trait. It is caused by a dominant mutation that affects limb development very early on, hence the wide array of possible presentations (3).

Occasionally, polydactyl cats can have health problems such as nail infections, ingrown claws, or bone abnormalities (3, 4). In the vast majority of cases, however, the cats have no difficulty at all. It’s thought that in some environments, polydactyly may even be beneficial. Although the old idea that cats with extra toes are better hunters is generally regarded as myth, it was observed long ago that Maine Coon cats, which evolved as a breed in the wild in New England, had a high incidence of polydactyly. Up to 40% of Maine Coons had extra toes before breeders began to select the trait out (4). It is believed that the extra toes helped give Maine Coons even larger paws than they already have, big paws they use like snowshoes to prevent sinking in deep snow during harsh New England winters (4).

Brown, polydactyl tabby cat in flower bed
An example of “mitten paws” – Photo by Georgy Trofimov on Unsplash

There’s no need for snowshoes in Florida, but the cats at the Hemingway House aren’t required to hunt for themselves, anyway. They are fed, pampered, and seen by a vet once a week. Most are spayed and neutered, with a few left intact to keep the colony at about forty to fifty cats. Although guests are not allowed to sit on the antique furniture, the cats get a pass, because this is their house. I have paid the Hemingway House a visit myself and can vouch for how delightful an experience it is to be surrounded by so many happy cats in a beautiful house. Their unique feet is an added bonus.

If you would like to visit the Hemingway House, the address is 907 Whitehead Street, Key West, FL 33040. They ask that you do not pick up the cats or bring any catnip or catnip toys with you. Apparently this happens a lot and has caused cats to fight over the limited herbal offerings. I imagine the same goes for bringing treats or anything else. No reservations are required, and each ticket includes a 30-minute tour.

Fun Facts

  • US President Theodore Roosevelt kept a polydactyl First Cat named Slippers while he was in the White House.
  • The current World Record for most toes on a cat belongs to Jake, a ginger tabby tom with 28 toes (seven on each paw).
  • There is an unsubstantiated report of a 32-toed cat named Mickey Mouse from 1974 (eight on each paw)!

Works Cited

  1. Hemingway Home Museum: https://www.hemingwayhome.com/cats/.
  2. Hamelin, A., et al. (2016). Clinical characterisation of polydactyly in Maine Coon cats. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 19(4), 1-12. DOI: 10.1177/1098612X16628920
  3. Basepaws. (2019). Genetics of polydactyly: Celebrating the Hemingway cats. https://www.basepaws.com/blog/genetics-of-polydactyly-celebrating-the-hemingway-cats/.
  4. Manhattan Cat Specialists. (2019). Polydactylism (extra toes). https://www.manhattancats.com/blog/2019/august/polydactylism-extra-toes-/.

Published June 6th, 2020

Updated November 4th, 2020

Cat Care

Should cats be indoors or outdoors?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Black cat laying outdoors in daisies
Photo by Lisa Fotios from Pexels

Today we broach one of the great cat debates. Cat people are usually united by their love of felines, but there are a few topics that can tear us apart. This is one of them. Perhaps this is due to the changing relationship between humans and cats, something that has continued to evolve ever since cats domesticated themselves. It used to be the case that almost no one had indoor-only cats. However, as humans became more urban and cats came to be seen more as companions, more people have chosen to bring cats inside with them. Some, however, still think cats belong entirely or partly outdoors. We all want to think that we are doing the best thing for our pets, but is there a right and wrong answer here?

Veterinarians and animal welfare agencies, without exception as far as I can tell, recommend keeping cats indoors. Before anyone starts to leave an angry comment, this is not to say that there’s no benefit to cats being outdoors. In fact, those who say that cats belong in nature are correct, cats evolved to live outside. Of course, so did humans, but that is beside the point. Being outside is good for cats’ mental health because it provides them with a wealth of stimulation. They are able to exercise, hunt, socialize with other cats, solve problems, and generally be a cat the way they were meant to be. So, yes, cats do enjoy being outside, and in some ways it is good for them. But it is not without reason that experts recommend making our feline companions indoor-only.

The average lifespan of an indoor cat is about fifteen years, but for outdoor cats it’s only two to five years. There are a lot of dangers that cats face in the big, mean world, regardless of the setting. Cars are a major killer of cats. Cats may learn over time to avoid cars, if they are lucky enough, but they do not instinctively know to be careful of them. Cats are even injured and killed when they crawl inside cars for shelter and don’t have time to escape when the car turns on.

They also in danger from a number of predatory animals including hawks, foxes, coyotes, bears, alligators, and many others, depending upon the environment. Dogs, whether pets or strays, kill cats, and cats get into dangerous fights with each other. Certainly, cats have some natural defenses against predators and other cats, but they can’t always emerge victorious. What chance has a cat against an alligator? And even if the cat is able to fight off the predator or aggressor, it may still be seriously injured.

Cats also face the threat of disease outside. They may pick up infectious diseases from contact with other cats, such as Feline Immunodificiency Virus (FIV, the cat equivalent of HIV), Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV), panleukopenia, and upper respiratory pathogens. FIV can be fatal, and there is no vaccination or cure. The only way to prevent it is to prevent infection by preventing contact with infected cats. There are lots of parasites out there, too, some of which can be passed to humans and carry other diseases. Cats may also come into contact with toxic plants or chemicals that could sicken or kill them if ingested. Many cats like to eat plants, and there are a whole host of toxic plants out there, especially in gardens. Antifreeze apparently has a pleasant taste, and cats have been known to eat it if they find it lying around.

Then, of course, there are the human dangers. There’s no telling what someone might do to your cat if you aren’t there. On the benign side of things, cats might be mistaken for strays and taken in to an animal shelter. Then there are those whose intentions are not to be admired. Animal cruelty is real and it happens. Friendly, free-roaming animals are easy targets. I won’t go into the grisly details of the horrible things people have been known to do to cats. Suffice it to say that two of the more common include shooting them with arrows and bb guns. Cats are also used as bait animals in dog-fighting, although it’s hard to say how often free-roaming pets are stolen for this purpose because there is simply so little data.

With all that being said, there are some disadvantages to keeping cats strictly indoors. Without the stimulation of being outside, they may become bored or even anxious or depressed. They can start to be very dependent on their human, or they might develop behavioral problems such as destructive tendencies (scratching, chewing, etc.), eliminating outside the litter box, or aggression. Individual cats can exhibit any number of signs of stress as a result of not being to act out all their natural behaviors. So, what can we do? It’s too dangerous outside and too boring and confining inside. There are a few ways to compromise.

First, the indoors doesn’t have to be so boring. Cats need lots of places to climb and hide, and lots of surfaces to scratch. Every cat has their own preferences in all of these regards, so you may have to do some experimenting. A good cat tree is always a place to start. Make sure the cat tree has a wide, stable base and any scratching posts are tall enough for your cat to stretch out to their full length on. Many cat trees don’t meet these requirements, thus are unlikely to see much use.

Orange and white cat playing with toy
Bring the outdoors in with toys! – Image by DarkWorkX from Pixabay

Toys are also key. Not every cat likes the same kind of toy because not every cat is the same kind of hunter. Most cats will need some toys they can play with on their own as well as interactive toys for you to play with them. Interactive toys allow you to really simulate a hunt for your cat. This especially helps them to exercise and feel like they’re out in the wild.

Another thing you can do is “cat TV.” We know that cats like to watch the great outdoors out the window. Putting a bird feeder or something similar outside the window to make the view more interesting is a good idea. It also helps to make sure that your cat has a good perch by the window(s) so they can watch in comfort. You wouldn’t want to watch TV sitting on a narrow windowsill, would you? If you don’t have windows, don’t have much of a cat-friendly view, or just want to try other options, there are videos of literal TV for cats that you can put on. Or you can try making a terrarium, aquarium, or paludarium (that’s a combination of both) with some small animals that they would like to watch. Just be careful that they can’t knock it over!

If you would like to let your cat really experience the outdoors, well, outdoors, you still can. There are a few options that allow you to keep your cat safe while also letting them enjoy the nature. One is to harness train your cat so you can take them on walks. That may sound like asking for a clawing, but it doesn’t have to be. See my previous article for a how-to on walking your cat.

If you or your cat don’t care for that idea, however, don’t fret. If you have a suitable yard, there are cat-proof fences designed to keep your cat from jumping out. Cats will not jump if the fence has a top that is angled above their heads sharply enough. They know better than to bump their heads! There are products that can be attached to an existing fence as well as entire fencing panels built this way. Or you can do it yourself, if you’re handy. Just make sure to supervise your cat while they’re out in your yard in case something else gets in.

Perhaps the most flexible option is a catio (cat patio). These are a wide variety of cat enclosures that allow cats to be outside while still being enclosed. If you already have a screened-in porch, that qualifies. For everyone else, there are ready-made catios that you can buy which accommodate a variety of homes. Some are meant to attach to apartment windows or to sit on balconies or porches. Others are meant to sit in yards or attach to houses via a cat door.

There is also the option to build one yourself or have one built for you. The catio concept is very customizable to the needs of you and your cat. Just make sure that it is sturdy enough to withstand your cat from the inside, especially if they are an escape artist or a screen climber, and any predators or other cats from the outside. If you want to put plants in your catio, make sure they are safe for cats.

A custom-built catio

If you still choose to keep your cat outdoors, please do so responsibly. Bring your cat inside or at least into some sort of structure at night and during extreme weather. Feeding your cat when you want it to come in will make sure it does so. Take your cat to the vet regularly and keep it up to date on its vaccinations. Maintain flea, tick, and heartworm medication, and have your cat de-wormed regularly. Make sure your cat wears a collar with rabies tags and an ID tag with your contact information. However, the collar needs to be a breakaway collar. Cats are prone to getting their collars caught on things, and other collars can cause them to get trapped or suffocate. Given that the collar may come off, it is important to also have your cat microchipped.

It should go without saying, but you absolutely need to have your cat spayed or neutered if they are going to be an outdoor cat. Not only will this prevent overpopulation, but if you have a she-cat this will save you from unwanted kittens and pregnancy-associated health problems. Furthermore, intact cats of either sex wander farther and get into more fights, especially toms.

An important note: if your cat is declawed, they cannot be an outdoor cat. They can still have supervised outdoor time, but they cannot be allowed to free-roam. Declawed cats can’t defend themselves well at all and are in much greater danger than cats with all their defenses in place.

So, do cats belong outside? Well, yes, they do, a biopsychological sense. But as pet parents we have committed to taking the best care of our cats we can. So we need to keep them safe, in our homes. But that doesn’t mean cats should be bored, or even that they can never be outside. We probably should take them outside, but as their guardians it is our responsibility to go outside with them and make sure no danger befalls them. That is the distinction between an outdoor cat and an indoor cat that is momentarily outdoors. Our furry friends deserve the best lives we can give them, both long and happy. A rewarding indoor life with supervised outdoor time is the way to give them the best of both worlds.

Published May 30, 2020

Updated December 5, 2020

Breed Profiles

Sphynx: Suede Superstars

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Gray Sphynx cat looking out window
Photo by Alina Vilchenko from Pexels

Hairless cats have been around for a long time. The Aztec people of Mexico are believed to have kept a breed of hairless feline around the 1300s and 1400s (1). Aztec paintings, carvings, and statues show a cat without a fur coat similar to ones we know today (1). However, the Sphynx cat, a rare and well-loved modern breed, has its origins quite recently.

Breed Characteristics

The hairless trait in cats arises through spontaneous mutation from time to time, and so it did in 1966 in Toronto, Canada. A black-and-white Domestic Shorthair named Elizabeth gave birth to a hairless tom. The unusual kitten was named Prune, and a team of breeders began a program to make more special cats like Prune, but were unsuccessful. With only one hairless cat, it was was difficult to avoid inbreeding. However, fortune smiled on them. In 1975, Milt and Ethelyn Pearson noticed that their farm cat, Jezabelle, had given birth to a hairless kitten. They named him, rather charmingly, Epidermis. When Jezabelle had another the next year, they named that kitten Dermis. Both kittens were sold to a breeder in Oregon.

Then, in 1978, a breeder in Toronto found three hairless kittens wandering her neighborhood. She took them in and named them Bambi, Punkie, and Paloma. These five hairless kittens became the progenitors of the Sphynx breed. The breeding programs repeatedly out-crossed the hairless cats with cats with normal coats, adding more genetic variation to the breed and creating a strong gene pool. The Domestic Shorthair, Cornish Rex, Siamese, and Devon Rex were all used during part of the breeding program.

In truth, “hairless” cats are not hairless. The Sphynx typically has a very short, thin coat of soft fur, although the amount of fur can vary. Some Sphynx may come close to being bald, but none have no fur at all. Most Sphynx feel like suede when stroked. The extra-short coat and skin beneath can come in any color and pattern. The hairless trait does cause these cats to lack whiskers or, occasionally, have only a few short whiskers.

There is a myth that the Sphynx and other “hairless” breeds are hypoallergenic. Some people with cat allergies may find that they have less of a reaction in the presence of a Sphynx since there is less hair in the environment, but Sphynx are not really hypoallergenic. Cat allergies are caused by a protein in cat dander and saliva, and Sphynx have skin and spit just like any other cat. They are decidedly a low-shed breed, however.

Their lack of fur, while their most striking feature, is not the only thing that gives the breed a somewhat alien appearance. Sphynx have large, bat-like ears and big, wide-set, lemon-shaped eyes. Prominent cheekbones highlight these standout eyes even more. Their skin is a little loose, causing them to have wrinkles, especially on the face and shoulders. They have a long, thin, whip-like tail. Sphynx are generally well-muscled, but naturally have a round belly. On the whole, it makes for a unique picture which people tend to find either adorable or repulsive. I’ve never seen a cat I didn’t want to cuddle, furry or not. But like all breeds, the Sphynx isn’t suited for everyone under the sun, and not because of its appearance.

Grooming and Care

Two brown and white hairless cats on cushion
Sleepy Sphynxes – Image by LoraPalner from Pixabay

They might not have a thick, fluffy coat, but Sphynx actually need more grooming than a lot of breeds, not less. This might seem counterintuitive, but allow me to explain. Cats produce a lot of oils in their skin and saliva in order to moisturize their coat and keep it clean. Sphynx groom just as much as any other cat, but they don’t have enough fur to absorb those oils. Instead, they just sit on the skin and build up, potentially leading to skin problems. Most cats also have fur around their ears to prevent dirt and mites from getting inside. Sphynx lack this layer of protection, so they are prone to ear infections and wax buildup as their ears work to expel all that gunk.

Thus it is that Sphynx need to be bathed once a week and have their ears cleaned at least that often. I know the prospect of bathing a cat is unpleasant, but a Sphynx breeder would have to start bathing kittens early on, so Sphynx are usually used to it by the time they reach their forever homes. But maybe you get a cat that experienced less than ideal circumstances growing up and this didn’t happen, or they have strong instincts regarding water and all the breeder’s best efforts were for naught. It still has to be done, so reward your cat during and after and try your best to not bring your own stress to the situation. Easier said than done, of course, but if you can remain calm, your cat is more likely to be calm.

It needs to be noted that even if you bathe your Sphynx as often as you need to, they still have oils on their skin all the time, especially when they sweat. This means that they can sometimes leave reddish-brown stains on fabric if they sit or sleep there for a long time.

Make sure to wash the face with a warm washcloth, and get between the wrinkles and all the toes. Even the claws can get build-up. It’s a good idea to clean those wrinkles between baths, as well. There are wipes designed specifically for cleaning cats which you can use, or baby wipes will do. As for cleaning the ears, use a warm, damp cloth or a cotton ball. Your veterinarian can recommend a solution just for cleaning out the ears. Cleaning all the gunk of a Sphynx’s ears can be gross, but an ear infection would be a lot more unpleasant for all concerned. On that note, look out for any odor or redness in the ears, and contact your vet if you notice any.

Sphynx cats sometimes require additional skincare such as moisturizing. Ironic, since the goal of the bathing is to make them less oily, but skin is a fickle beast. They are particularly susceptible to sunburn and long-term UV damage. They need to be indoor cats for this reason, but even brief supervised outdoor time or sitting in a sunny window can lead to sunburn. Consult your veterinarian about skincare products for your cat. Many ingredients in human sunscreen can be toxic to cats.

Health and Home Life

If you have a busy lifestyle, that might be more maintenance than you can put into grooming a cat. If you think it might be manageable, however, a Sphynx can be well worth it. They are extremely friendly and affectionate cats who love to cuddle and be involved in whatever their people are doing. They are known for having a sense of humor and engaging in all kinds of antics to get attention. Their liveliness and agility increases the probably of hijinks. Expect a Sphynx to make you laugh on a regular basis. They are very chatty cats who love to tell you what they think.

Sphynx may need a minute to get used to children, as most cats do, but they typically make good family pets and get along well with other cats and dogs. They don’t do well if left along for long periods of time, however, so if you leave for work make sure they have a friend at home. If there won’t be a human there, they need to have an animal companion that they get along well with. It’s often a good idea to get two Sphynx, or a Sphynx and a lower-maintenance cat, at the same time so they can bond and keep each other busy. Sphynx like to be kept busy.

Sphynx hijinks from Nefertiti

Sphynx also like to be warm. They’re pretty good at finding ways to do that on their own, but you may need to help them out. For certain, you’ll need to make sure you feed them enough. Sphynx have an unusually high metabolism, working hard to maintain a body temperature four degrees higher than most cats. They need to eat quite a bit more. A veterinarian is the best authority on how much your cat should eat for their size.

If you don’t keep your house pretty warm, you may need a heated cat igloo or something similar to help your Sphynx have a place to warm up if they get too cold. You may even want to try getting your Sphynx some kitty sweaters. It usually isn’t a good idea to put cats in clothes, but hairless cats may need the warmth, especially if you live in a cold climate. Some cats get too stressed out when put in clothes. If your cat can’t get used to a sweater, then just give them plenty of heated places to retreat to.

Sphynx are generally healthy cats due to the way the breed was originally created, but there are a few health problems to look out for. They have a higher rate of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, the most common heart disease in cats. It causes thickening of the heart muscle and has no cure but is manageable with veterinary care. Sphynx rarely have a condition called hereditary myopathy which leads to muscle weakness. Cats can have a normal lifespan with proper veterinary intervention, but severe cases can sometimes lead to death. Breeders are trying to eliminate this disease from the breed. And of course, due to their lack of coat Sphynx are prone to a variety of skin conditions.

Sphynx breeders typically have waitlists, and in 2016 at least one breeder in Canada was shaving regular kittens to pass them off as expensive Sphynx kittens (2). Clearly, the high degree of maintenance required in owning a Sphynx has not prevented them from becoming much sought-after. Given their unique appearance and wealth of personality, is it any wonder? I always recommend adopting rather than buying from a breeder, but if you do decide to purchase a kitten from a breeder, do your research to make sure it is a reputable one. When it comes to cats, bald is beautiful as long as they were born that way.

Fun Facts

  • Sphynx have webbed feet!
  • When the breed was first being developed, it was called the Canadian Hairless.
  • A Sphynx named Ted NudeGent was a serious actor. He played Mr. Bigglesworth, Dr. Evil’s cat in the Austin Powers movies. He then went on to be Rachel Green’s cat, Mr. Whiskerson, in Friends, and to act in I Know Who Killed Me alongside Lindsey Lohan.

Works Cited

  1. Quasha, J. (2000). The Sphynx cat: The hairless cat. The Rosen Publishing Group.
  2. Baynes, C. (2016, November 30). Fraudsters ‘shaving kittens and selling them as fake sphynx cats for more than £400.’ The Mirror. Link here.

Published May 23, 2020

Updated October 30, 2020

Culture

Cat Beach Sanctuary: A Feline Oasis in Malaysia

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Two white cats on beach
Cats on the beach – Photo from Cat Beach Sanctuary

There are a handful of things that have the power to relax me without fail. Two of them are being on the beach and petting a friendly kitty. Cat Beach Sanctuary in the fishing village of Teluk Bahang, Malaysia is a kind of paradise I didn’t know existed on Earth. Up to 300 rescued cats roam the seashore sanctuary, sunning themselves on the sand. Many of these cats have been saved from difficult lives or almost certain death. Now they are fed and cared for, and as many as possible will be adopted. If not, however, they can stay here for the rest of their lives. Cat Beach is truly a sanctuary.

The sanctuary was founded in 2014 on the island of Penang by an American expat, Teviot Fairservis, and a local community cat caregiver named Mr. Nana. They were inspired by the work of 4PAWS, a dog sanctuary on Penang with a similar set-up. Fairservis began volunteering at 4PAWS after moving to Penang, but quickly realized that there was nowhere for people to take rescued or unwanted cats. Then Penang enacted a “Zero Strays Policy,” effective July 2014. This meant that any cat or dog rescued from the streets could not be returned from whence they came. If there was nowhere to house these animals, they would have to be euthanized. There were some shelters available for cats to go to, but all were kill shelters that couldn’t keep animals indefinitely without euthanizing them. Fairservis felt she had to do something to help the cats.

4PAWS founder Barbara Janssen introduced Fairservis to Mr. Nana Bin Wanchik, a man in Teluk Bahang who had been feeding about eighty community cats. He and Fairservis built Cat Beach Sanctuary together. They also founded the Cat Lovers International Society to help advance the feline cause beyond the sanctuary.

Tropical beach
Penang, Malaysia – Image by Zsofia Daranyi from Pixabay

The sanctuary currently consists of a simple wooden beach house and several smaller outbuildings. The main house is where the most vulnerable cats are housed in individual cages, i.e. mothers with kittens and sick or injured cats that need a lot of care. Other shelters exist on the beach for cats that are healthier and can be allowed to come and go as they please. The sanctuary also features the Traveler’s Bookshop and 2nd Chances Charity Store. Their cat cafe suffered major damages after a monsoon in 2018 but is on the mend. Visitors are welcome. They can just hang out with the cats or join in activities such as cat-themed craft projects or volunteer opportunities.

Cat Beach takes in stray, abandoned, rescued, or surrendered cats from all over the island. Although the people of Teluk Bahang generally have a positive attitude toward cats, not everyone in Malaysia does, and they have witnessed horrifying mistreatment of cats in their work. Veterinary care is difficult to come by on Penang, but they do as much as they can on site and make the hour-long trip to the nearest clinic whenever necessary or possible.

Cat Beach has a goal of sterilizing and vaccinating every cat that comes to their doorstep, but it can be difficult. Cost and transportation make it hard to vaccinate and sterilize many cats at once. However, they are still trying, and they are also doing educational outreach programs to inform the community about the importance of such measures as well. Their educational programs also aim to change the perception of cats in Malaysia, so that people will no longer think of them as a nuisance. Hopefully, if more people love cats, less cats will be abused or abandoned to begin with, and more of the cats at the sanctuary will be adopted.

Cat and woman on beach
Ocean view – Photo from Cat Beach Sanctuary

Cat Beach is doing amazing work, but they need help to do it. They are a volunteer-run organization. You can volunteer during a single visit or apply to volunteer for an extended period of time. Long-term volunteers can be lodged on-site. They need volunteers for every part of running the organization, from cat care to maintenance to administration. They accept volunteers from anywhere in the world, and students may be able to receive internship credit for their service. Fairservis used to be a university professor. She understands the struggle. If interested in volunteering, email [email protected] or see the Cat Beach website for more information.

If you aren’t able to volunteer, there are other things you can do. Donations, either monetary or in-kind, are always welcomed. They go through a LOT of supplies with all those cats. Donations of funds can be sent via PayPal to TeviotCatBeachPenang, through their GoFundMe at www.gofundme.com/catloversintl, or through direct deposit into CIMB Bank Malaysia Savings Account # 7063481337 in the name of Mohd Iqbal bin Zainal (the president of the Cat Lovers International Society). In-kind donations can be ordered from Tesco Penang or Lazada.com and sent to Cat Beach Sanctuary, 778 Jalan Teluk Awak, MK 2, Teluk Bahang, 11050, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia. Their wish list can be found here.

Finally, you can adopt a cat from Cat Beach. They do support international adoptions if you aren’t local, but it can get complicated, as you might expect. Don’t let that stop you if you really want to give it a go, though. You can also sponsor a Cat Beach cat to pay for their care. Cat Beach has a foster program as well.

You can find out more about Cat Beach by visiting their website at https://catbeachpenang.com/.

Published May 16, 2020

Updated December 19, 2020

Cat Care

Should cats drink milk?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Two tabby cats drinking saucer of milk
Image by FotoRieth from Pixabay

I was recently watching a YouTube video–one of those funny cat compilations, you know the type. One of the clips included a cat being offered milk, and oh boy, did the comments go crazy. Everyone had an opinion about whether cats should drink milk or not. I’ve always heard that cats are lactose intolerant and shouldn’t have milk, but there were lots of people who disagreed. Certainly YouTube comment sections are not the place to obtain scientific information, but it sparked my curiosity. I had no idea there was so much debate about this topic, and now I wanted to find out the answer for myself.

Cats certainly seem to like milk. My parents have had two infamous ice cream thieves. And cats have been portrayed in media of all kinds happily lapping from a saucer of milk, for at least two hundred years and possibly going back to the Middle Ages, but I had some trouble verifying the dates of older images. Why do cats like milk so much, or are we imagining it?

It’s not an illusion. Dairy farmers noticed a long time ago that cats would get very excited about fresh cow’s milk. Cats are particularly fond of the cream that rises to the top of the fresh milk, as cats are naturally drawn to fatty foods that would help them survive in the wild where food is not guaranteed, and cream is certainly high in fat. It has also been demonstrated that cats relax while lapping milk (1), perhaps because it recalls pleasant maternal memories.

Brown and white calf
Intended recipient of cow’s milk – Photo by Couleur on Pexels

Unfortunately, the fact that cats like milk doesn’t mean they should drink it. Kittens drink their mother’s milk in order to gain vital nutrients and antibodies until they begin weaning. The milk of mammals contains a sugar called lactose, and infants produce an enzyme called lactase to break down this sugar which provides them with important energy for their development. As the kittens begin to eat solid food and less of their mother’s milk, they slowly stop producing lactase. The same is true of other mammals, including humans, but an unusual percentage of humans continue to produce enough lactase to digest dairy into adulthood. Cats, like other mammals, usually don’t. This means that most cats are lactose intolerant as adults.

Cats may enjoy milk or other dairy products while they’re eating them, but the majority who are lactose intolerant will pay for it later with gastrointestinal upsets. The undigested lactose can’t be absorbed into the bloodstream, so it moves straight through the intestines, drawing water with it and causing loose stools or diarrhea. They may also experience vomiting, and the action of intestinal bacteria fermenting the lactose can cause gas and bloating. Even cats that are not lactose intolerant may have dairy allergies that can also cause gastrointestinal and/or skin problems (2). Not the recipe for a happy cat, or a happy cat parent, for that matter.

Not all cats have this problem. There are some that can handle milk without an issue. Others are fine with small amounts from time to time but react negatively if given more. Regardless, it’s important to note that cow’s milk is not nutritious for cats even if they can tolerate it. It’s essentially junk food, high in calories but devoid of the protein and other nutrients that cats need. Obesity is a significant problem among pet cats. Whole milk especially poses a risk because it has so much fat. A well-nourished cat doesn’t need all that fat.

White goat
Goat’s milk can be a good treat for some cats – Photo by Ellie Cash on Unsplash

The healthiest cat treats are plain meat, cooked if you’re worried about contamination (which would be fair). Nutritious commercial treats can also be fine in moderation. However, if your cat is just crazy about milk, there are some options that are better for your cat. If you already know that your cat can tolerate lactose, then small amounts (think a teaspoon or so) of low-fat or skim milk as an occasional treat could be fine. Lower-lactose products such as plain yogurt or goat’s milk might also do. Goat’s milk has more vitamins and minerals than cow’s milk and contains the amino acid taurine, which cats require, so there’s a point in favor of the goats.

I have seen some claims that raw (unpasteurized) milk is preferable because the nutrients and enzymes present in the milk have not been heat-killed. I have also seen some information which suggests that it might be dangerous due to the presence of potentially harmful live microorganisms. Personally, I would err on the side of caution and choose pasteurized, but you can make your own decisions in the regard. Lactose-free milk products for humans are available, as well as “cat milk” products specially formulated for cats. They vary, but are generally lactose-free, low-fat, and more nutritious for cats. They are available online and at many pet stores. In any case, milk of whatever sort should be given only as a treat to adult cats, in small amounts.

Milk alternatives that should not be used include plant milks such as soy milk, almond milk, etc. Cats are carnivores and are not well-equipped to digest the carbohydrates in plants. Plant milks are often sweetened, and cats do not need all that sugar, either. Plus, it isn’t uncommon for cats to have allergies to soy.

In settling a great YouTube debate, it seems that cats should generally not drink milk, but there are cats who can handle it or other kinds of milk that cats can have. As long as it’s given as a treat, rather than used as a major part of their diet, a little dairy or an appropriate alternative can be okay. I would rather Rosie stayed out of my ice cream bowl, however.

Note: Kittens should never be given cow’s milk or any kind of alternative. They should only receive their mother’s milk or a kitten formula, if a mother isn’t available, until they are old enough for weaning.

Works Cited

  1. Cervantes, M., Ruelas, R., and Beyer, C. (1983). Serotonergic influences on EEG synchronization induced by milk drinking in the cat. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior, 18(6), 851-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-3057(83)80004-5
  2. Guilford, W.G., et al. (2001). Food sensitivity in cats with chronic idiopathic gastrointestinal problems. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 15(1), 7-13. DOI: 10.1892/0891-6640(2001)015<0007:fsicwc>2.3.co;2
  3. Kornreich, B.G. (2020, May 2). Dear Elizabeth: Is feeding cats milk safe for your kitty? [Email newsletter] Cornell Feline Health Center.

Published on May 8, 2020

Updated January 2, 2021

Cat Care

Leash Training for Cats

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

White cat on leash
Photo by Dids from Pexels

Though still unusual, it has become more common these days to see someone walking their cat on a leash. Some may think the entire concept is absurd, but the evidence that it can be done is there for all to see. The question is, how? Just getting most cats into their crates is a feat not for the faint of heart. What kind of sorcery is required to wrestle one into a harness? No sorcery, but it does involve some patience and a willingness to meet your cat where they’re at.

Not all cats will want to be walked. Knowing your cat’s personality will give you a good idea how they will feel about the subject. A cat that is always hanging around outside-facing doors, looking out windows, and trying to escape when you open the door is a cat that’s interested in the outdoors. There’s a good chance that they’ll enjoy a chance to explore. Cats that are afraid of outside doors, are very stressed by change, or are very timid in general may not want to be walked. You could still try it. You might be surprised and find out that going on a walk gives your cat the confidence boost they needed. But just don’t get your hopes up.

That being said, most cats are not thrilled about the prospect of being walked when it is first presented. Cats generally do not like unfamiliar experiences, and this certainly qualifies. However, if they are eased into it slowly, some cats come to be very enthusiastic about being walked.

Proper Preparation

Before attempting to walk your cat, make sure that they are up to date on their vaccinations, including Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV). Indoor cats are usually not at risk for FeLV, but a cat on a walk might catch it from contact with another cat. Also make sure that your cat stays current on flea, tick, heartworm, and intestinal worm preventatives, as these parasites are much more likely to be encountered outdoors.

Make sure that your cat has a collar with ID tags to wear on walks in case the two of you become separated. It’s a good idea to have your cat microchipped, too. If your cat was microchipped a while ago, make sure that the information is up to date. Cat collars are typically break-away, meaning that the latch will come undone if the cat gets the collar caught on something. This is a good thing, given the kinds of places cats can get into. Break-away collars prevent entrapment or suffocation. But if the only way your cat can be traced back to you is the ID tag on their collar, these collars may not be much help in reuniting you.

Ginger tabby wearing harness with bowtie
Some harnesses can be very stylish – Photo by Amber Kipp on Unsplash

With all that accomplished, it’s time to buy a harness and leash for your cat. There are a variety of products made specifically for cats, as well as some small dog harnesses that can work well. It is important to use a harness and not just a leash that clips to your cat’s collar, partially because of the break-away collar issue mentioned above. Also, cats can sometimes slip out of their collars, and a harness distributes pressure more comfortably across a cat’s chest instead of in one place against their throat.

There are different types of harnesses available. Some use adjustable straps and others are like a fabric vest. Both types have their merits and pitfalls. The vest type can be easier to put on, but may not fit well on chubby or long-haired cats. The strap kind allows for more adjustment but may slip off of svelte or short-haired cats. Your cat may also have their own preference.

Leashes can also vary. A very long leash can put you too far away from your cat should any threat arise, like someone walking a dog. Retractable leashes tend to present the same problem, allowing you to put too much distance between you and your cat. There are leashes for cats which are somewhat flexible. They have a section of coiled fabric which allows your cat to jump without the leash jerking them back. Those are my personal favorite, but I have seen no expert mandate requiring such a product. As long as you allow your cat enough slack on the leash, the flexible lead probably isn’t a necessity.

Getting Ready to Walk

The best time to start training a cat to walk is when they’re a kitten, but it’s never too late. The process is likely to take longer with adult cats, but it will be a gradual matter regardless. Let your cat set the pace and never force them to walk. If you have clicker trained your cat, that will come in very much in handy during this process.

The first step is getting your cat used to the harness. Begin by placing the harness out in the open where your cat can investigate it. Reward your cat with a treat for sniffing or otherwise showing interest in the harness to build a positive association. If your cat is clicker trained, then click and treat when your cat shows interest. Do this over the course of as many days as it takes for your cat to become used to the harness being in their space, then try draping the harness over your cat. Reward your cat for tolerating the harness. When your cat isn’t bothered by having the harness laid on top of them, you can try putting them into the harness.

You want to make it the most positive experience possible, although your cat probably won’t like it the first time or even the first several times. Give your cat their favorite treats after the harness is on, and be gentle and soothing while getting your cat into the contraption. Then, let your kitty walk around in the harness for a while. Some cats will just freeze up when put into a harness, but eventually they will get used to the feeling. You can try playing with your cat while they wear it if they’re willing. Once they’ve relaxed, you can remove the harness and repeat tomorrow, and the next day, and the next, until your cat is comfortable with putting on and wearing the harness.

How to Put a Strap-Style Harness on a Cat

Next, start attaching the leash when you put your cat in the harness, but don’t hold the leash. Just let your cat walk around with the leash dragging behind them. Do watch to make sure they don’t get the leash caught on anything. The goal is to accustom your cat to the feeling of something else on their body. Once they’re comfortable with this stage, start walking your cat around the house. Hold the leash and let your cat lead you. Treat them often to keep building that positive association. If your cat seems comfortable, you can practice directing them. Only ever use gentle corrections on the leash to direct your cat. Hard tugs on the leash to tell them where to go can make cats averse to the entire activity of walking.

Into the Wild

When your cat is okay with being walked inside, you are finally ready to venture outside. The first few times, you may just want to open the door and sit on the stoop with your cat. It depends on their personality, but for many cats those first forays into the outdoors can be scary. Even if your cat wants to explore outside, they may need a little time to build up their courage. It’s a good idea to walk your cat inside a safe, enclosed yard at first, if at all possible.

However quickly your cat takes to the great outdoors, never forget that a cat is not a dog. Therefore walking a cat is not like walking a dog. Cats tend to go a much more leisurely pace and stop to investigate objects or change course much more often. Walking a cat is really more like being walked by a cat, except you are responsible for correcting your cat if they start to go somewhere unsafe. Always look out for other animals as well as any plants that might be toxic for your cat to consume. Flower beds can be deadly, especially if they have lilies of any kind. Even the pollen of lilies can cause fatal kidney failure in cats if it gets on their fur and they lick it off.

White and orange cat on a leash on sofa
Train your cat to walk indoors before venturing outside – Photo by Taylor Deas-Melesh on Unsplash

As long as you are there to keep your cat safe, the stimulation offered by the outdoors can be delightful for many cats. It engages their brains and bodies, providing them with new problems to solve, things to see and smell, and more exercise than can typically be afforded indoors. We should always strive to provide the best enrichment inside that we can. Unfortunately, we can never perfectly emulate the dynamic and complex natural environment. Taking cats on walks provides them with a safe way to enjoy the perks of the outdoors.

Since cats thrive on routine, it’s best to establish a daily walking plan for your cat. Part of this is having a signal to let your cat know that it’s walk time. It’s also a good idea to put the harness and leash on in the same place every day. It’s best not to do this near the door, or your cat might start to associate the door with the fun of going outside and try to dart out every time you open it.

What if you try this entire process, and your cat never takes to it? Maybe they never get used to the harness, or no matter how carefully you introduce them to the outdoors they are always afraid. There are a lot of points where your cat might say “no.” You need to respect their decision if they do. Not every cat will want to be walked. If you think your cat might still benefit from going outside, then there are alternatives.

Cat strollers and backpacks allow you to walk your cat without a leash, and catios can be built in any outdoor space your home might have. Catios allow your cat access to the outside without straying from their home. For a more timid cat, a catio may be the better option. It’s all a matter of finding out what your cat wants. I will say that the least expensive of these options is the harness and leash, and it helps both you and your cat form an exercise routine, so it’s a good place to start.

Published May 3, 2020

Updated January 8, 2021

Breed Profiles

Manx: The Rabbit Cats

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Gray tabby cat with no tail
Gray tabby Manx – Image by spicetree687 from Pixabay

Hundreds of years ago on a little island in the Irish Sea, humans first began to notice a curious kind of cat wandering about. It looked largely like a normal cat, except it had no tail! Within the small cat population of the Isle of Man, this odd trait soon became quite widespread, and eventually quite sought-after. The Manx breed can still be found on its home island but is now a beloved yet rare breed worldwide. In this article we’re going to explore this fascinating breed from theirs noses to the tips of their–well, wherever they may end.

Breed Characteristics

Re: That Tail

The lack of a tail is the most striking and famous feature of the breed, but not all Manx are tailless. There are four categories of Manx based on tail length. Those without tails are called rumpies. They have a shallow depression at the end of their spines where the tail would normally be. Some don’t have tails, but they do have three fused vertebrae at the base of the spine which lift up when the cat’s back is stroked. Such cats are called rumpy risers. Stumpies have very short tails, and longies have normal or close to normal length tails. Tails intermediate between the latter two are also possible. Regardless of tail length, they are still considered Manx cats, although only rumpies and rumpy risers are allowed in the show ring,

The wide variety of tail lengths seen in the breed, often in the same litter, is due to the genetics of the unusual trait. Four mutations have been identified that cause the tailless trait in Manx cats, but they all seem to behave in the same way (1). The mutations are dominant, but with partial penetrance. This means that any cat with a copy of the mutation would be expected to display the tailless trait, but sometimes they do and sometimes they have a less dramatically foreshortened tail. The science behind the Manx tail is still under investigation. Researchers are interested in it because of what these cats may be able to teach us about how the spine develops in mammals in general (i.e. humans), and how that sometimes goes wrong.

Tabby cat without tail
Silverwing, a champion Manx show cat in 1902 – Wikimedia Creative Commons

Manx have at most one copy of a tailless mutation. This is because having two mutant copies of the gene does cause things to go wrong during development. How, exactly, is unknown, as these kittens rarely survive long enough to be born. This is one of the reasons why Manx usually have small litters. Some kittens will inevitably inherit two mutant copies. Of course, this raises ethical questions about deliberately breeding these cats, knowing that some kittens will die. How many kittens, we can only guess using genetics and mathematics.

All other things being equal, in a mating of two parents, each carrying one mutant allele, about 25% of their offspring would inherit two mutant alleles and die. Responsible breeders can decrease those numbers by including longies in the breeding pool, as they are likely to not carry any mutant alleles. Do we trust breeders to make the right decisions? And do we accept that some kittens will still probably die even when a breeder is doing their best to avoid it? The kittens don’t suffer as far as we know. It’s a sticky dilemma. When we circle back around to some more biology later, there will be even more tough questions. But first, let’s go over something lighter.

General Appearance

Given that Manx can have normal tails, the lack of one is obviously not the only defining characteristic of the breed. Perhaps the most common adjective used to describe the appearance of Manx is “round.” They have round heads with large, round eyes and round cheeks that make them look a bit jowly. They’re hind legs are much longer than their forelegs, and this causes their backs to arch from shoulders to rump, thereby making their whole body look round. They have a stout body and broad chest with muscular, round haunches.

I repeatedly saw the ears described as looking like a cradle from the back, and frankly, I have no idea what that means. They just look like cat ears to me, but maybe that will strike a chord with someone else. Manx can come in any color or pattern under the sun, although the Cat Fanciers Association does not allow lavender or chocolate, or the color-point pattern, because they indicate hybridization. They may be short- or long-haired. Both have a double coat which can require weekly grooming, more during shedding seasons.

Manx playing fetch

Personality

Manx are known for being friendly and people-oriented. They are quiet cats, but will have conversations with their people in a soft trill like that used by mother cats to communicate with their kittens. Manx are typically very mellow, but they are fiercely loyal and are quite the guard-cats. They may go on the offensive if they perceive a threat. Strange dogs are the most likely to bear the brunt of real aggression. Familiar dogs, however, can be great friends.

Manx who are socialized to other pets and children when young do very well with them. Older Manx may take time to adjust if they aren’t used to such creatures, so give them time. Cats are creatures of habit, after all. Though not an extremely active breed, Manx are very playful and intelligent. They like to learn tricks and solve puzzles. Multiple Manx in the same household have a curious and amusing tendency to chase each other in circles.

Despite the often missing or short tail, Manx do not struggle with balance and are excellent hunters and jumpers. Their powerful back legs can get them into most high places, so be sure to lock up anything you don’t want them to have. Hiding it in a cupboard or on a tall shelf will not keep it away from a determined Manx. These cats are thought to have particularly robust inner ears to help them maintain their balance, something most cats would use their tails to aid in.

History (Maybe)

There were no native European wild cats on the Isle of Man when the domestic cats first arrived. On that much, there is a consensus. Beyond that, no one is certain when or how domestic cats came to the island, or why they came to have such a strange mutation. Even scientists are still in flux about the latter. Of course, the locals have much more interesting stories.

One common theory holds that a ship wrecked near the Isle of Man. The ship had cats, as most would have, and these swam to shore and colonized the island. The sailors were not so lucky. Another version of this story would have it that there were already cats on the island, and the tailless feline survivor(s) of the shipwreck were the genesis of the Manx breed. The origin of the ship in the story varies, as well. Often it’s a ship (or two) from the Spanish Armada that wrecked in 1588, but at least two other shipwrecks are considered possible sources. It has also been speculated that the Vikings brought cats, or at least that they brought the long-haired cats. We will probably never know for sure.

Northern island coastline
The Isle of Man – Photo by Smergen from FreeImages

We now know why Manx cats sometimes have no tails, but the first linguistic reference to the tailless cats on the Isle of Man was in the mid-eighteenth century (2). The residents couldn’t have known about genetic mutations. So they came up with their own ideas. One theory took into account the stumpy or absent tail and long legs of Manx cats, which sometimes have a hoppy gait, and decided that they were not cats but cabbits, the offspring of a cross between cats and rabbits. This theory really raises more questions than it answers, but Manx do look a little bit bunny-like. Needless to say, cabbits are biologically impossible.

Another story went that when Noah built the Ark to save two of every animal from God’s flood (see the Book of Genesis), the Manx cats were running late. Does this mean Noah took two of every breed of cat on board? The story doesn’t elaborate. But the rains were about the start and Noah had already started the door closing when the cats were running up the gangplank. They made it through–but their tails didn’t.

Maybe the most gruesome story yet goes that Viking or Irish warriors used to steal Manx kittens to cut off their tails. They would use the tails to adorn their helmets as good luck charms. The mother cats did not take kindly to this, but they were no match for the warriors. So they did the best they could. They bit off their kittens’ tails to save them from a worse fate.

Thankfully, no Manx actually had their tails cut off in the making of, well, Manx. However cats came to the island, after that a random mutation that caused the tailless trait arose. This trait is detrimental to reproductive success and sometimes the individual. Manx have compensated for the lack of balance, but that may have come at the Darwinian expense of tailless cats that could not. Even if not, cats use their tails for communication as well. There are also health problems associated with the trait, not to mention that having two copies of the mutation is lethal. So why did it become so widespread?

The traditional explanation was genetic drift, the phenomenon by which a trait changes in frequency in a population by random chance. In other words, it just kind of happened. In small, inbred populations, this is pretty common. Try out a simulation of genetic drift here if you’re interested in seeing how this works. However, a study in 1980 found that the tailless trait would become stable in a population, despite the lethality, as long as sperm carrying the dominant mutant allele had an advantage during fertilization (3). While the study was mathematical in nature, it gives a strong indication of why the Manx trait may have been so persistent on the Isle of Man (3). She-cats frequently mate with multiple toms while in heat, so that selective fertilization advantage could make a difference.

Health Concerns

This is its own section for a reason. Manx are wonderful companions and can make great pets, but no one wants to get a sick cat they weren’t prepared for. Manx don’t have very many breed-specific health problems, but the ones they do have can be severe. They usually appear early in life, by four months at the latest, so if you purchase from a breeder, be very cautious of anyone willing to part with kittens before the age of four months.

Silver coin
Coin from Isle of Man showing a Manx cat – Isle of Man Post Office (https://www.iompost.com/)

Manx are prone to corneal dystrophy, a progressive cloudy buildup in the cornea of the eye. It typically appears by four months. It can cause vision loss and blindness, depending upon the severity, but cats can learn to cope with blindness well.

The worst concern with these cats is Manx syndrome, a group of conditions that can co-occur in Manx cats. It’s most common when rumpies are bred to rumpies for multiple generations but sometimes crops up even with responsible breeding. Manx syndrome includes spinal disorders like spina bifida (incomplete closure of the vertebrae over the spinal cord, leaving exposed nerve tissue), fused vertebrae, short or missing vertebrae, and deformed pelvic and/or sacral bones (4). Neurological problems such as lower-body paralysis or difficulty walking can occur (4). Cats with milder symptoms walk with the bunny-hop that led some to think Manx were cabbits (4). Inability to control the bowels and bladder and digestive problems are symptoms of Manx syndrome as well (4). Kittens with this disease are often euthanized.

Once again, the ethical question of whether we should be breeding Manx raises its ugly head. At one time, anyone that wanted a Manx had to have them shipped from the Isle of Man, where the cats just bred themselves. But supply inevitably outstripped demand, and here we are. I know I wouldn’t buy a Manx from a breeder, but I wouldn’t buy any cat from a breeder, so that’s easy for me to say. It seems objectively wrong to breed cats in the knowledge that some proportion will die in utero or die later because they’re so sick.

On the other hand, these are cats that occur in the wild, unlike some novelty breeds that were artificially selected to be that way. Does the natural-ness of the breed make it okay for us to breed more? I’m not a philosopher. You reach your own conclusions. But I will, and always will, say this: adopt, don’t shop! If you would like to adopt a Manx cat, check at your local shelter or Tailless Cat Rescue (http://www.taillesscatrescue.com/).

Fun Facts

  • Koko, the gorilla who learned American Sign Language, had a Manx as her first kitten. Koko named her All Ball because of her roundness.
  • The Manx was one of the founding breeds of the Cat Fanciers Association in 1906.
  • You can visit a Manx cat sanctuary on the Isle of Man: Mann Cat Sancuary (manncat.com).
  • Long-haired Manx are sometimes recognized as a separate breed, the Cymric (meaning “Welsh”).
  • Manx have been pictured on coins and stamps in their native Britain.

Works Cited

  1. Buckingham, K.J., et al. (2013). Multiple mutant T alleles cause haploinsufficiency of Brachyury and short tails in Manx cats. Mammalian Genome, 24(9-10), 400-408. DOI: 10.1007/s00335-013-9471-1
  2. Baraniuk, C. (2016, February 2). Why the cats on one British island have lost their tails. BBC Earth. link here.
  3. Adalsteinsson, S. (1980). Establishment of equilibrium for the dominant lethal gene for Manx taillessness in cats. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 57, 49-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00277762
  4. Meggitt, J. Spina bifida in Manx kittens. The Nest. https://pets.thenest.com/spina-bifida-manx-kittens-7590.html.

Published April 24, 2020

Updated January 15, 2021

Behavior, Science

Why are cats crazy for catnip?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Catnip flowers
Photo by S W Yang from FreeImages

A catnipped cat is a sight to behold. They lick and chew the wondrous herb, rub their faces in it, and roll around on the ground. Sometimes they drool or run screaming through the house. Some cats, on the other hand, don’t seem to care for catnip at all. Cats are truly a never-ending source of entertainment and mystery. Scientists of many stripes have been investigating the relationship between cats and catnip since at least the 1960s, so many questions have been answered, although some still remain.

Catnip, also called catmint or catwort, usually refers to the species Nepeta cataria, but can include any of the 250 or so species in the genus Nepeta. Cats react to quite a few of these species, not only Nepeta cataria, the most well-known catnip. Catnips are members of the mint family. Most of the species are perennials. They have opposite leaves, grey-green foliage, and small flowers in a variety of colors. N. cataria has pink or white flowers. Catnip is aromatic even to humans, smelling minty and perhaps lemony. It is the scent of catnip that attracts felines to the plant so strongly.

Not all cats care for catnip, but it does seem to be the case that all species of cats have the catnip reaction, or at least a lot of them. Wild cats large and small have been observed reacting to catnip in the same way that domestic cats do, although just like housecats, not all of their wild brethren are fond of the stuff, either. The chemical in catnip that causes this more-or-less universal reaction is nepetalactone, a volatile oil produced in glands on the underside of the leaves (1). Nepetalactone repels insects, so it is thought that the plant produces the oil in order to repel herbivorous bugs (2), but the chemical appears to mimic a natural cat pheremone. At least, that’s the theory, given that the behaviors exhibited during the catnip reaction bear a striking resemblance to some of those of a she-cat in heat (3).

Wild cats big and small playing with catnip

When a cat inhales nepetalactone, the volatile oil binds sensory receptors which trigger neurons in the olfactory bulb of the brain (4). These neurons, in turn, relate the message to brain regions that cause an emotional and sexual response to the stimulus (4). Catnip is sometimes called an “euphoriant” for cats, although in truth we can only guess at what they are feeling.

Inhaling the scent of catnip is usually stimulating while eating catnip mellows cats out, although individual cats can react to catnip differently. Some may even become aggressive toward other cats or people, so keep an eye on kitty until you know how they are going to behave under the influence, so to speak. The entire reaction lasts about ten minutes, after which the cat cannot react again for up to two hours. Catnip is considered non-addictive and safe. Too much catnip at once can cause a cat to get sick, like anything else. You might want to store your catnip well out of reach if you buy a large amount. Nepetalactone loses potency over time, so it’s a good idea to keep dried catnip in the freezer to avoid this anyway.

Ginger tabby in catnip plant
Image by CatCrazy from Pixabay

What about cats who are indifferent to catnip? There are two possible reasons. First, kittens, with possibly some rare exceptions, do not react to catnip and may even avoid it (5). Cats begin to experience the excitement of catnip around six months of age, when they reach sexual maturity. Interestingly, this occurs even when cats are spayed or neutered (5). But some cats never do become interested in the herb, and this is due to genetics. There is a dominant allele which confers the catnip reaction on cats who inherit at least one copy of it at that gene (5). Anywhere from 20-50% of cats are estimated not to react to catnip and therefore to have two recessive alleles for that trait. What that means for their biology otherwise is hard to say, as the reason for cats reacting as they do remains a matter of speculation.

If you have a cat that likes catnip, you might consider growing a pot of it yourself. Mint species tend to be sprawling and invasive–catnip has already become weedy and invasive outside its native Eurasia and Africa–so I would recommend confining it to a pot. But then you would always have fresh catnip available for your kitty and, for that matter, yourself. Catnip has been used medicinally for hundreds if not thousands of years. In addition to its repute as a natural bug repellent (albeit only for a few hours at a time), it has a mild sedative effect on the human brain similar to chamomile. Herbal teas of catnip may be good for anxiety or insomnia, or just good for relaxing after a hard day.

Native Americans once used catnip to treat infant colic, and the herb is reputed to be good for migraines, digestive complaints, and as a paste for arthritis (4). I cannot personally vouch for these healing properties, but I can say that I kill every plant I try to grow, and even I managed to grow a nice, healthy catnip plant for several months, which is probably a record for me. The cats loved the fresh catnip, but I did have to move the plant outside to prevent them from just munching the whole thing to the dirt. At least I knew they liked it.

Fun fact: other plants, such as valerian and silver vine, affect cats the same way as catnip!

Catnip bubbles!

Works Cited

  1. John Innes Centre. (2018, December 11). How catnip makes the chemical that causes cats to go crazy. ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/12/181211103125.htm
  2. Eisner, T. (1964). Catnip: Its raison d’être. Science, 146(3649), 1318-1320. DOI: 10.1126/science.146.3649.1318
  3. Palen, G.F. and Goddard, G.V. (1966). Catnip and oestrous behaviour in the cat. Animal Behaviour, 14(2-3), 372-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(66)80100-8
  4. Turner, R. (2007, May 29). How does catnip work its magic on cats? Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/experts-how-does-catnip-work-on-cats/
  5. Todd, N.B. (1962). Inheritance of the catnip response in domestic cats. Journal of Heredity, 53(2), 54-56. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a107121

Published April 17, 2020

Updated January 30, 2021