Tag: kittens

Science

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)

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Meredith Hemphill

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In memory of Sully

Gray cat with Christmas tree
Sully died of FIP at the end of 2021

Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) is a severe multi-organ-system viral disease that affects domestic cats as well as other felines [2, 5]. Until very recently, a diagnosis of FIP was a death sentence for a cat. It is still often fatal. However, knowledge is power. Knowing when to go to the vet and what your options are can save a life.

What Causes FIP?

FIP starts with an intestinal virus called feline enteric coronavirus (FeCV or sometimes FCoV). You can’t catch this coronavirus; only felines can [1, 4, 5, 9]. FeCV is very common among cats, especially in places where many cats live close together like shelters and catteries [1, 2, 5, 8]. Most cats infected with FeCV experience no symptoms, mild diarrhea, or mild respiratory illness before defeating the infection on their own [1, 4, 5, 8, 9]. In the meantime, they can easily spread the infection through their fecal matter or, less often, saliva [1, 2, 4-6]. Cats usually become infected by getting the virus in their mouths [1, 5, 6]. Shared litter boxes are a typical culprit [1, 2, 4-6]. An uninfected cat needs only to step in the litterbox after an infected cat has used it, and then when they clean their paws later, they become infected themself.

But what does this benign virus have to do with FIP? It isn’t well understood, but in about 10% of cats a FeCV infection turns into FIP [1, 2]. This is believed to occur as a combination of two phenomena. First, FeCV undergoes a spontaneous mutation that enables it to infect macrophages, a type of white blood cell [1, 2, 5, 8, 9]. This is the feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV). Second, the immune systems of certain cats overreact to the mutated virus, causing out-of-control inflammation and damage [1, 4, 6]. Incidentally, it is an overblown immune reaction to the coronavirus of the moment, COVID-19, that makes it so dangerous for a proportion of the population.

In the bodies of cats where both of these things happen, FIP develops. Some cats are more prone to FIP than others. Although the specific genetic risk factors remain unclear, specific breeds are at greater risk: Abyssinians, Bengals, Birmans, Himalayans, Ragdolls, Cornish Rexes, and Devon Rexes [6, 8]. Younger cats and most especially kittens make up the majority of FIP cases [1, 4, 6]. Their weaker immune systems are less able to fight off a FeCV infection, giving it more time to mutate [5]. Unneutered cats also seem to be at greater risk, for unknown reasons [8].

FIP symptoms chart
Symptoms of FIP – Image from Cornell University eCommons

Symptoms and Subtypes

The most common and earliest symptoms of FIP are, frustratingly, not very specific. They may include fever, change in appetite, weight loss, and depression [1, 5, 6]. As FIP advances, it develops into one of two general forms: wet/effusive or dry/non-effusive. In the wet form, fluid builds up in the abdominal and chest cavities and may cause breathing difficulty [1, 4-6, 8]. The dry form causes neurological and eye symptoms such as seizures and uveitis (inflammation of the outer layers of the eye) in addition to the non-specific symptoms [1, 4-6, 8].

FIP diagnosis chart
Diagnostic Map for FIP (Hartmann, 2005)

Diagnosis

Diagnosing FIP is difficult and complicated. The symptoms can all be signs of other diseases. Once it is suspected, there is no definitive, foolproof test for FIP. At right is a diagnostic scheme for FIP from one scientific article as an example of the mental gymnastics veterinarians have to do when deciding how to pursue FIP testing.

The options include blood and fluid tests, genetic tests for FIPV, and the veterinarian’s observations during an exam [1, 2, 4-6]. Many of the tests are complicated by the fact that so many cats have been infected by FeCV [1, 2, 5]. A cat’s veterinarian has to determine the best course of testing based on their individual case.

Treatment

Until just a couple years ago, nothing could be done for cats with FIP except supportive care to ease their suffering and extend their life a short time. For many cats, that is still the case, for reasons I will get to shortly, or simply because their disease is too severe. Supportive care consists of subcutaneous or intravenous fluids, draining fluid from body cavities if applicable, steroids to control inflammation, and immunosuppressive medication [1, 2, 4-6].

GS-441524

GS-441524 is an antiviral drug that prevents viruses from synthesizing RNA, a molecule which many viruses, including FeCV/FIPV, use instead of DNA [3, 9]. It was created by the pharmaceutical company Gilead, which specializes in antivirals [9]. Gilead first tested GS-441524 against Ebola but was ineffective [9]. However, FIP researcher Niels Pedersen knew someone at Gilead and asked if they could send him anything to test [9]. His friend at Gilead obliged, and Pedersen found two promising candidates that killed FIP in cultured cat cells [9]. He moved on with testing one of them, GS-441524, in cats with FIP [9].

The results were incredible. In a laboratory study, ten of ten infected cats recovered [9]. In a field trial with 31 pet cats with non-neurological FIP, 25 recovered, still an unheard-of success rate for this otherwise inevitably fatal disease [7, 9]. A more recent pilot study suggests that GS-441524 is effective in neurological and ocular FIP, too [2]. Side effects were not too bad. Cats experienced pain and skin reactions at the injection site, sometimes developing sores or scars [7]. This may be because the formula is very acidic [7].

Gilead, however, has declined to license GS-441524 for animal use [9]. GS-441524 is almost identical, molecularly, to another one of their drugs, remdesivir, which they are trying to get licensed for human use, and they believe that licensing GS-441524 for FIP would harm their chances with remdesivir [9]. Cat people and Chinese entrepreneurs have gotten creative, however.

GS-441524 is not a difficult molecule to synthesize, so numerous outfits in China have chosen to manufacture and sell it, filling the gap Gilead left open [9]. Because GS-441524 is not FDA-approved, veterinarians cannot prescribe it, and it’s illegal for cat parents to purchase and administer it [1, 9]. That has not stopped desperate people who want to save their cats. Because it is a black market, there is a risk that the product will not be as advertised [1, 9]. And it is incredibly expensive: it costs 7,000-12,000 USD for the 12-week course of medication [9]. When people can manage to acquire it, however, GS-441524 seems to be as good as the research suggested [1, 9].

If your cat has been diagnosed with FIP, and you would like help accessing GS-441524 treatment, contact FIP Warriors.

Watch “Kitten Lady” Hannah Shaw’s journey through FIP with her cat Coco

Preventing FIP

Because FeCV is so common and easily spread, it’s hard to prevent FIP entirely. There are some things you can do, however. Keep litter boxes clean and far away from food and water dishes [1, 6]. Cats are more vulnerable to developing FIP if they have another disease like FeLV or FIV, so get your cats vaccinated against all those easily preventable diseases [1, 6]. There is one FDA-approved vaccine against FeCV, but it does not seem to be all that effective [1, 5, 6]. You can always ask your veterinarian about the FeCV/FIP vaccine if you’re concerned, however. Keep in mind that cats often get FeCV infections at animal shelters and catteries, so you may want to isolate any new cats for a couple weeks [1, 5].

Works Cited

  1. Cornell Feline Health Center. (2020). Feline infectious peritonitis. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. Link
  2. Diaz, J. V. & Poma, R. (2009). Diagnosis and clinical signs of feline infectious peritonitis in the central nervous system. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 50(1), 1091-1093. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2748294/
  3. Dickinson, P. J., Bannasch, M., Thomasy, S. M., Murthy, V. D., et al. (2020). Antiviral treatment using the adenosine nucleoside analogue GS-441524 in cats with clinically diagnosed neurological feline infectious peritonitis. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 34(4), 1587-1593. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.15780
  4. Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). (n.d.). Veterinary Specialty Center. https://www.vetspecialty.com/feline-infectious-peritonitis-fip/
  5. Hartmann, K. (2005). Feline infectious peritonitis. Veterinary Clinics: Small Animals Practice, 35(1), 39-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2004.10.011
  6. Levy, J. K. & Hutsell, S. (2020, October). Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/disorders-affecting-multiple-body-systems-of-cats/feline-infectious-peritonitis-fip
  7. Pedersen, N. C., Perron, M., Bannasch, M., Montgomery, E., et al. (2019). Efficacy and safety of the nucleoside analog GS-441524 for treatment of cats with naturally occurring feline infectious peritonitis. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 21(4), 271-281. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098612X19825701
  8. Pesteanu-Somogyi, L. D., Radzai, C., & Pressler, B. M. (2006). Prevalence of feline infectious peritonitis in specific cat breeds. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 8(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfms.2005.04.003
  9. Zhang, S. (2020, May 8). A much-hyped COVID-19 drug Is almost identical to a black-market cat cure. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2020/05/remdesivir-cats/611341/

Published June 15, 2022

Updated November 12, 2023

Culture

Sagwa: The Chinese Siamese Cat

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

It’s probably been about 20 years since I last saw Sagwa, but I still remember it fondly if a bit blurrily. I was solidly a PBS kid, and I would have been five when it premiered, perfectly in the target demographic. Plus, my favorite animals have always been cats and bats. A cartoon about a kitten whose best friend is a bat was made for me. The enduring love for this short-lived kids’ show indicates a lot of other children felt the same way. I’ve found out, however, that Sagwa was a real cat! She inspired a children’s book which inspired the popular television show.

Sagwa, Amy’s Siamese Cat

Writer Amy Tan created the character of Sagwa. Tan is a first-generation Chinese American who started her career as a language specialist for developmentally disabled children (7). She started writing fiction in the 1980s while working as a freelance business writer as a break from her hectic work schedule (7). Tan never intended to be a professional writer; she just kind of fell into it and was really good at it (7). Tan’s first and best-known book is The Joy Luck Club, but she went on to publish many other books, short stories, and essays, including Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat, a picture book for children (4, 7, 8).

Sagwa book cover
Image from Wikipedia

Tan had an elderly Siamese cat named Sagwa (1, 2, 5). Sagwa means “silly melon head” in Chinese (2, 5, 6, 9). It’s usually an insult to say to another person, as it implies incompetence (6). As a name for a cat, though, I think it’s kind of cute. One night, Tan had a dream about her cat and how Sagwa got her color points (1, 5). She decided to write a story about it, and in 1994 Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat was published with illustrations by Gretchen Schields (2, 8). The real Sagwa lived to be 21 years old and is memorialized in the dedication of the book as Amy Tan’s “late and dearly beloved kitty” (2).

In the book, the character of Sagwa is a pure-white kitten who lives in the house of the Foolish Magistrate, an unpleasant official with a habit of making up restrictive and unnecessary rules for his subjects. One day, the Foolish Magistrate decides to decree that all citizens must not sing until after sunset. Sagwa was napping in the study, and after the magistrate left, she jumped down onto his desk and landed in an inkpot. The ink got all over her face, ears, paws, and tail. (2, 8)

As Sagwa tried to rub the ink off, she accidentally smudged out the character for “not” on the proclamation. When the altered decree was read, the citizens loved the idea of singing all day. The magistrate was not pleased to hear singing, until he realized they were singing his praises. The magistrate learned some wisdom, and he made a new decree that all cats in his district would henceforth have dark points in honor of Sagwa. (2, 8)

Sagwa Takes the Small Screen

PBS Kids adapted the story and characters from Amy Tan’s book into a television show that premiered on September 3, 2001 and ran for a single season with 40 episodes (3, 5, 6). Tan was a creative consultant on the production (3, 4). The first episode tells the story from the book, and the rest of the stories are original (6, 9).

Amy Tan with Sagwa
Amy Tan and the Miao kittens – Image from tvtropes

The action centers around the Miao family: the kittens Sagwa, older brother Dongwa, and younger sister Sheegwa as well as their parents Mama and Baba and grandparents Nai-Nai and Yeh-Yeh. As in the book, they live in the house of the Foolish Magistrate, who lives with his wife, Tai-Tai (literally “wife”), and their three daughters. The magistrate’s chef and Reader of the Rules also feature prominently, as well as other cats in the village. Sagwa’s best friend is a bat named Fu-Fu. The Miao family are court calligraphers–they write the magistrate’s edits for him by dipping their tails in ink (3, 5, 9).

There’s no specific location given for the village, but clues in the show give the time as the late Qing Dynasty, 1895-1912 (5, 6, 9). Each episode contains two animated stories divided by a short segment of real children talking about their culture and customs (1, 3, 4). In an interview with the Arizona Daily Sun, Amy Tan explained that the show, for her, was about showing kids that culture, heritage, and circumstances make us different, but that we really have more in common than what divides us (1). “The whole idea to me is that imagination is so tied to compassion for other people,” she said (1).

Like most children’s media, each story in Sagwa teaches a moral lesson. The press release for the show from PBS cites “there’s more than one way to view the world” and “you’re never too small for your own voice to be heard” as uniting themes (4). Introducing children to other cultures, especially Chinese traditions, was obviously a priority as well.

Paw Rating

As far as the book goes, I only just learned it exists, but it looks adorable. I want one. Critical reviews I read called it wordy and were quite unkind about the artwork (8). I think perhaps those reviewers missed the point of children’s books, especially with their complaints suggesting that the illustrations weren’t high art. There’s a video online of Amy Tan reading it on Sesame Street, and it looked like a book I would have loved when I was little. Having not actually read it myself, only watched it read to Elmo, I can’t really give it a rating of my own. Here is a great review from a fellow cat person, however.

As for the television show, it is absolutely charming. Although I have my doubts that it’s entirely accurate to Qing Dynasty Chinese culture, it definitely broadened my horizons as a little child living in a very white community. I do have a bone to pick with it as an amateur cat educator. I can let the thing with the magically permanent ink markings go because that was the folktale Amy Tan created. However, no cat seems to have a little of more than one kitten, at least not that I can remember. The Miao kittens are all said to be two years apart in age, yet they are all still kittens (5, 9). Five-to-eight-year-old children are old enough for animal characters in their edutainment to follow the basic rules of their species. Don’t get me started on the dogs that live in Tai-Tai’s sleeves.

On the whole, I think it’s a show that kids can get a lot out of, but there’s room for improvement when it comes to accuracy and educational value. It’s a shame it only ran for one season. It was in reruns so long, I thought surely it was longer than that. I give Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese cat 4 out of 5 paws. Time to look up a recipe for mooncakes.

Works Cited

  1. Coder, M. (2001, September 24). Sagwa shows her true colors–and admires others’. Arizona Daily Sun. link
  2. Haines, C. (n.d.). Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat. Life with Siamese Cats. https://www.life-with-siamese-cats.com/sagwa-the-chinese-siamese-cat.html
  3. Heffley, L. (2001, September 3). ‘Sagwa’ a finely drawn tale. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-sep-03-ca-41625-story.html
  4. PBS Publicity. (2000, January 19). Amy Tan’s Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat, produced by Cinegroupe in association with Children’s Television Workshop and IF/X Productions, is coming daily to PBS Kids. Public Broadcasting Service. link
  5. Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat. (n.d.). IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0294177/
  6. Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat. (2022, April 17) In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sagwa,_the_Chinese_Siamese_Cat&oldid=1083261392
  7. Tan, A. (n.d.). About. Amy Tan: The official website. http://www.amytan.net/about.html
  8. The Indianapolis Public Library. (2022, April 26). Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat. https://indypl.bibliocommons.com/v2/record/S165C404405
  9. Western animation: Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat. (2022, April 18). In tvtropes. https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/WesternAnimation/SagwaTheChineseSiameseCat

Published May 8, 2022

Culture

Cats in Media: Milo and Otis

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Milo and Otis movie poster
The Adventure of Milo and Otis movie poster – Image from IMDb

Once upon a time, there was a ginger tabby kitten. He was born under our front porch, the summer before I started kindergarten. He looked just like the kitten in one of my favorite movies, so I named him Milo. And just like the cat in the movie, “Milo was trouble from the very beginning” [9]. Milo was one of the kittens we kept. All three of his littermates were girls, so there was no Otis, but he and his sister Cara were equally inseparable for their entire lives.

I grew up with those cats. The Adventures of Milo and Otis took on new meaning as I spent 15+ years with a Milo of my own, just as ginger and mischievous as the Milo in the film. The two or three VHS tapes and two DVDs people gave us of the movie over the years never let us forget it. “Look, there’s an orange cat named Milo in it, just like yours!” Sometimes you have to wonder about people.

When I thought about doing some articles on cats in movies, books, etc., Milo and Otis sprang immediately to mind. I don’t even remember the first time I saw it. It sort of seems like it was always there. I suspect this movie played a big part in my desire for a cat as a young child. I’m sure I’m not the only one. Of course, no beloved childhood memory goes unruined–The Adventures of Milo and Otis has faced some controversy. This simple and extremely cute movie has a surprisingly complicated story.

Summary

Koneko Monogatari movie poster
Koneko Monogatari movie poster – Image from Yahoo Movies

First, let’s make sure everybody’s on the same page. The Adventures of Milo and Otis is a children’s movie about a ginger tabby tomcat named Milo and a tan-and-black pug named Otis. Milo is fun-loving and danger-prone while Otis is serious and responsible, but the two are best friends. The story begins on the farm where both were born. They have all sorts of adventures, even hatching a chicken egg together, but things take a turn when Milo decides to play hide and seek at the dock.

He hides in a box floating in the water, and the box comes unmoored and floats downriver. Otis takes off in pursuit, and so begins the real adventure as the two friends try to find each other and return home. Along the way, they meet animals both friendly and dangerous, grow up, find love, and finally return home together with new families in tow.

The Making Of Milo and Otis

Milo and Otis didn’t start out as Milo and Otis, but as Chatran and Poosky. The Adventures of Milo and Otis was first a Japanese film called Koneko Monogatari, or “A Kitten’s Story” [5, 8, 13]. The director, Masanori Hata, is an author and zoologist [3, 7]. He owns a private island where he had collected over 300 animals of a wide variety of species [3]. He called it Mutsugoro’s Animal Kingdom, and he wanted to show it all off in a film about his animals [3].

It was no small undertaking. Koneko Monogatari was filmed over the course of four years [3, 6, 8, 13, 14]. Hata wrote and directed the movie himself [3, 5, 6, 13]. It was made sort of documentary-style [3, 7, 13, 14]. To some extent, the animals were filmed just doing their thing. But there are scenes that could only have been staged. After the film was edited together to form a story, music, narration, and poetry recitation were added [13, 14]. Koneko Monogatari was released to Japanese audiences in 1986 [3, 5, 12, 13].

Journey to America

Koneko Monogatari did very well in Japan, and Hollywood took notice. Columbia Pictures took on the project of adapting the film for a North American audience [8, 9, 13, 14]. They didn’t simply translate it into English, however. Screenwriter Mark Saltzman, known for his work on Sesame Street, wrote a new script that is less whimsical and devoid of poetry interludes [5, 7, 9, 13]. Fifteen minutes of footage were cut [6, 10, 11, 13]. Much of the rest was reordered to make the story more appealing for Westerners [6]. The result is a sort of rambling coming-of-age tale.

Obviously, the characters were given new, English-language names, and Milo and Otis were born. Otis also received an expanded role in the Columbia Pictures adaptation [13]. Add a new narrator and a new soundtrack, and there you have it: The Adventures of Milo and Otis. It was released in the United States in 1989 [5, 8, 9, 12, 13].

“Walk Outside,” the theme song from The Adventures of Milo and Otis

Reception

Koneko Monogatari was the number one film at the box office in Japan in 1986 [8, 13]. It was the third highest-grossing film ever in Japan at the time [13]. A video game tie-in was released on the Famicon at the same time as the movie [13], but I don’t think it was as enthusiastically embraced. Koneko Monogatari‘s star would continue to rise, however. In 1987, it won Most Popular Film at the Japanese Academy Awards and received a nomination for Best Music Score [5, 13]. And of course, the money continued to pour in [5, 13].

The Adventures of Milo and Otis wasn’t quite as overwhelmingly successful, but the film still did very well. It received a Young Artist Awards nomination for Best Family Motion Picture – Adventure or Cartoon in 1990 [5, 13]. Critical reception was generally positive. According to The Washington Post’s Rita Kempley in 1990, “It’s totally awwwwww-some” [7]. The $13.3 million The Adventures of Milo and Otis grossed in the United States suggests that audiences agreed [5, 13].

Animal Abuse Allegations

Since the release of Koneko Monogatari, rumors of animal abuse have haunted the film. Australian animal rights groups raised the alarm and called for a boycott [8, 13]. Animal Liberation Queensland alleged that more than 20 kittens died during production [8, 12, 13]. Japanese activists also voiced concerns [14]. A 1986 article from The Economist read, “It’s hard to see how [Chatran] survived. Indeed, according to Japan’s biggest animal-rights group, he did not. Or, to be accurate, a third of the Chatrans used did not” [14].

Pug sitting on frosty grass
Image by devlopenet0 from Pixabay

Activists also alleged that a producer deliberately broke a kitten’s paw so that it would limp for a particular shot [8, 12, 13]. Then there were complaints about what could clearly be seen in the movie itself, such as Chatran/Milo plummeting from a 100-foot (30.5-meter) cliff and trying to climb back up, Poosky/Otis fighting a bear, and Milo being attacked by seagulls. Interestingly, most of the footage that was cut from the North American version consisted of controversial scenes and shots such as these, including the scene in which the kitten’s paw was allegedly broken [5, 10, 11, 14]. Whether this was more about avoiding the wrath of American and Canadian animal activists or making the movie more palatable for Western kiddos is hard to say.

The American Humane Association investigated the rumors of animal abuse through contacts in Europe and Japan [3, 8]. In their own words, “everything has led to a dead end” [3]. In their report, they did note that five Japanese humane societies “allowed their names to be used in connection with the picture” [3]. However, the fact that American Humane themselves did not sign off on the production and were not present during filming is kind of a big deal. In fact, it has often been cited as further evidence that animal abuse may have occurred.

You know the “no animals were harmed” statement you see at the end of a lot of movies? That’s the stamp of approval of American Humane’s film program [1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 14]. The program has been in place since 1940 and is extremely rigorous in ensuring the welfare of all animals in film at every stage of the process [4]. Only United States, Screen Actors Guild productions are required to work with American Humane [2]. Other filmmakers, including international ones, can choose to do so, but they are under no such obligation [2]. Many do, however, for the weight that the American Humane name carries.

So it’s not that surprising that neither Koneko Monogatari nor The Adventures of Milo and Otis contains the “no animals were harmed” statement in the end credits. Instead, they run this odd bit: “The animals used were filmed under strict supervision with the utmost care for their safety and well-being” [8, 9, 12, 14]. Admittedly, that’s not quite as reassuring.

Paw Rating

So, all that being said, where do I stand on Milo and Otis? It really depends. If the rumors of animal abuse are true, then obviously it gets 0 out of 5 paws. Or, like, -1000 out of 5 paws. But there is really no solid evidence that the allegations are true, or that they aren’t. It’s a thorny situation, to say the least. And now that’s it’s been over thirty years, we’ll probably never know the truth.

If I regard The Adventures of Milo and Otis apart from the abuse allegations, I feel like it still has the same charm it did when I was five years old. There’s not a strong plot. It doesn’t try to teach big life lessons–except that seagulls are jerks, which is a good one to live by. But it’s full of cute animals and has always just made me happy to watch. This is definitely intended to be a kids’ movie; however, a word of warning about that. When the kittens and puppies are born, the birthing process is shown in great detail. That never disturbed me as a child. Actually, I think knowing that baby cats come out of cats made it easier for me to later comprehend that baby humans come out of humans. But all children are different, so just bear that in mind.

As much as I love Milo and Otis, and as important as it was in my childhood, I don’t think I can fairly give it the full compliment of paws. It probably won’t be catalogued among the greatest movies of the 20th century, but that’s not why. Even if the rumors were all false, I can’t help thinking that some animal endangerment was part of this production.

I remember several other all-animal movies from around that time, but that hasn’t been a lasting trend. I’m sure there’s multiple reasons for that, but one of them must be that you can’t make a movie that way without some stress and risk to the animals. And I think Masanori Hata et al. subjected their cast to even more risks than strictly necessary. Maybe I just haven’t seen Napoleon or Homeward Bound in a while, but I don’t remember those animals looking genuinely distressed onscreen. However, I did notice a couple times Milo or Otis was clearly not happy. I’m going to give it 3 out of 5 paws. Adorable movie, but it would have been cuter if they hadn’t tried so hard to make the animals act.

Bound and leap, then bound, and perhaps, also leap.

Works Cited

  1. American Humane. (n.d.). About us. Humane Hollywood. https://humanehollywood.org/about-us/
  2. American Humane. (2016, August 26). “No animals were harmed” frequently asked questions. https://www.americanhumane.org/fact-sheet/no-animals-were-harmed/
  3. American Humane Association. (2001, May 31). Movie review: The Adventures of Milo and Otis. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20010531234131/http://www.ahafilm.org/oldmovies1/theadventures/
  4. American Humane Association. (2015). Guidelines for the safe use of animals in filmed media. https://www.americanhumane.org/app/uploads/2016/08/Guidelines2015-WEB-Revised-110315-1.pdf
  5. IMDb. (n.d.). The Adventures of Milo and Otis. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097050/
  6. Kamal, N. (2011, October 16). Childhood revisited: The Adventures of Milo and Otis. Spectrum Culture. https://spectrumculture.com/2011/10/16/childhood-revisited-the-adventures-of-milo-otis/
  7. Kempley, R. (1990, June 16). The Adventures of Milo and Otis. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/theadventuresofmiloandotisgkempley_a0a019.htm
  8. Long, C. (2021, January). The animal abuse rumors of ‘The Adventures of Milo and Otis.’ Wide Open Pets. https://www.wideopenpets.com/milo-and-otis-deaths/
  9. Masanori, H. (Director). (1989). The Adventures of Milo and Otis [Film]. Columbia Pictures.
  10. [Retcon Media]. (2008, March 22). The Adventures of Milo and Otis deleted scenes 1 of 2 [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goix8a6xMok&ab_channel=RetconMedia
  11. [Retcon Media]. (2008, March 22). The Adventures of Milo and Otis deleted scenes 2 of 2 [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z2W_UbTAaw8&ab_channel=RetconMedia
  12. Rizov, V., Robinson, T., Rabin, N., Tobias, S., et al. (2012, April 9). Yes, animals were harmed: 21 films and TV shows that killed or hurt animals. The A.V. Club. https://film.avclub.com/yes-animals-were-harmed-21-films-and-tv-shows-that-ki-1798230791
  13. The Adventures of Milo and Otis. (2021, June 16). In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Adventures_of_Milo_and_Otis&oldid=1016106539
  14. The Adventures of Milo and Otis. (n.d.). Channel Awesome. https://thatguywiththeglasses.fandom.com/wiki/The_Adventures_of_Milo_and_Otis

Published September 12, 2021

Updated July 9, 2022

Science

Feline Reproduction, Part II: Pregnancy and Kittens

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Mother tabby cat and kitten
Image by JackieLou DL from Pixabay

Happy Spring Equinox! Spring is the season of new life, and that includes new kittens. Two weeks ago, we looked at the reproductive cycles and mating behavior of cats. Now, we look at what naturally comes next. I’ll cover the stages of cat pregnancy, birth, and the basics of kitten development. Additionally, I will continue to debunk common myths about feline reproduction.

Cat Pregnancy

A she-cat carrying or raising kittens is called a queen. Queens are pregnant for approximately nine weeks (2, 5, 6, 9). About three weeks in, queens begin to show signs of pregnancy (9). This is also when it first becomes possible to confirm pregnancy because a veterinarian can then feel the kittens inside the abdomen (8, 9). An ultrasound will also do the trick (8). The symptoms of a cat pregnancy include:

  • Weight gain (4, 9)
  • Increased appetite (2, 9)
  • Dark/pink, swollen nipples (2, 4, 9)

If you have a pregnant queen on your hands, make sure to feed her food approved for “growth and reproduction” life stages. This is usually labeled as kitten food, but it has the nutrients queens need to nourish themselves and their kittens as well. As her pregnancy progresses, she will need her food delivered in frequent, small meals (8). There is less room for food in there, after all!

As a cat nears the end of her pregnancy, she begins looking for a nesting site (2, 5, 8, 9). In the wild, a queen seeks out a dry, safe, hidden, and defensible location to kit. She usually picks out several so that she has places to move her kittens if danger threatens the original nest. An indoor cat will exhibit essentially the same behavior. She may appreciate being provided with a box, basket, or bed lined with soft bedding (5, 8, 9). Or she may choose to have her kittens under the kitchen sink, or some other weird place. She will pick wherever she thinks is safest. When the time comes, cats give birth to an average of four kittens (2, 4).

Birth

When a queen is near to kitting, she will probably visit her nest site(s) repeatedly and make adjustments to the bedding (4). She may become restless or anxious (8). Queens with humans may act more affectionate and seek comfort, or do the opposite and become withdrawn (4, 9). They may meow, purr, or pant (4, 5). The queen cleans around her vulva and nipples (5). This is thought to strengthen her scent there and lay a trail for the newborn kittens to follow toward the milk supply (5). During this time contractions begin, but no kittens appear (5). This first stage of labor can last as long as 36 hours in new mothers (4).

When the queen enters the next phase of labor, the contractions strengthen and the first kitten is born (4). The placenta soon follows (4). As soon as she pushes each kitten out, the queen bites open the amniotic sac that surrounds them, licks their mouth and nose clear, and bites off the umbilical cord (4, 5). The queen eats the placentas and licks her kittens to clean them and stimulate them to breathe (4, 5). The time interval between kittens varies from ten minutes to an hour (4). Sometimes, labor may stop after one or more kittens, only to resume as much as 36 hours later to deliver the rest (4).

With the exception of some purebred cats, queens usually kit without a hitch. If you have a pregnant cat, though, make sure you know the phone number of both your veterinarian and the nearest emergency vet just in case. If you think anything seems wrong, call. Make sure you know ahead of time how many kittens to expect so you know if somebody hasn’t arrived yet. Get in touch with a vet if your queen has had contractions for more than an hour with no kitten arrival or if two hours have gone by without the next birth (8). If a kitten has been in the birth canal more than a minute or two, take your cat straight to the vet (8).

Myth #1: If you touch very young kittens, the mother cat will abandon them.

White mother cat and kittens
Image by StockSnap from Pixabay

Scent is very important to cats. There’s no doubt about that. And queens do occasionally abandon one or more kittens for a variety of reasons: the kittens may be sick, deformed, or unresponsive (3, 5). But if this is your cat and her kittens we’re talking about, there’s no need to worry about touching the kittens. Your own cat who is familiar with your scent has no reason to be alarmed at finding it on her offspring (3). It will not cause her to reject them (3). You can even move the kittens to a safer nesting site if you need to–although there’s no guarantee their mother won’t move them again somewhere she likes better (3). Try not to separate the queen and kittens for the first few days if you can help it, however (8).

Myth #2: If you spay a cat that has kittens, she’ll stop producing milk for them.

This is a common belief that sometimes causes problems for people. It makes perfect sense, but it isn’t true. A queen can go on feeding her kittens even after she’s been spayed. In fact, spayed she-cats that have never given birth will start producing milk if a kitten suckles them long enough (3). They can help surrogate orphan kittens this way (3). She-cats start going back into heat shortly after giving birth, so this misconception can be dangerous. People who think they need to leave their she-cat intact to feed her kittens may get stuck in a cycle of perpetual kitting. Nobody can find homes for that many unplanned kittens. This is a myth we really need to dispel.

Kittens

Neonate (0-2 Weeks)

Kittens are born with their eyes closed and their ears folded shut. They can barely wriggle; walking is certainly out of the question. They also can’t control their body temperature or eliminate waste on their own (1, 7). Newborn kittens rely on their mother for everything, not just food. She keeps them warm and clean, she stimulates them to urinate and defecate, and she defends them from any danger. For the first 4-5 days, neonates (from the Greek for “new” and Latin for “born”) will still have the remains of their umbilical cords attached (7). It will then fall off on its own (7). These tiny kittens weight on average 100 grams (5, 7). They can’t do much and sleep most of the time. They can purr and make distress calls, though, so they can communicate with the queen (1).

During the first week, kittens’ ears slowly start to open up (1, 7). Their eyes follow suit a couple days later (1, 7). All kittens are born with blue eyes. At the end of the first week, kittens will have doubled their birth weight (1, 5, 7). Over the course of the second week, their eyes and ears will finish opening, although their vision will take a while to reach its full potential (1, 7). Two-week-old kittens can walk a bit, but they are awfully wobbly (1, 7). Kittens this age will also start to hiss at unfamiliar scents or sounds (1). They can knead, but they cannot retract their claws yet (1).

Baby Tiger (3-5 Weeks)

A kitten’s first teeth, their incisors, come in at three weeks (1, 6, 7). They start to be able to eliminate on their own, and kittens in an indoor environment may experiment with the litter box (1, 7). They begin to be able to regulate their own body temperature as well (7). Kittens will start exploring and playing in earnest around this time (1, 6, 7).

A queen starts weaning her kittens when they are about four weeks old (5). In the wild, she also teaches them how to hunt (5). For pet cats, this is a good age to begin socializing kittens (1). Kittens at this age don’t have to be at their mother’s side every moment, so their people can start to spend some time getting them used to being handled. This is also the age when kittens’ fur coat fills out and things like markings and coat length become more apparent (1). At five weeks, a kitten’s eyesight is fully-developed, and the playtime starts to get wild (1).

Older Kitten (6-8 Weeks)

A six-week-old kitten has all of their baby teeth (7). This is typically the age when kittens are brought to the veterinarian for their first exam and vaccinations (1, 8). Kittens this age know how to clean themselves and will groom their littermates, too (1). At seven weeks, their adult eye color starts to develop (7). Some cats will keep their blue eyes, but most will change to another eye color.

At eight weeks, kittens are usually fully weaned (1, 6, 7). Kittens are sometimes adopted out at this age, as they are pretty independent from their mother. It is possible to spay/neuter kittens at eight weeks if they have reached two pounds (0.91 kg) (1, 7).

Watch Gourdon and Pepita grow up in 10 minutes! Not for those with misophonia.

Teenager (3-12 Months)

Although growth slows down a bit, a lot still has to happen before a kitten’s first year is over. They will shed their baby teeth and grow permanent ones (6). They’ll go through puberty around six months old and she-cats will have their first heat cycle (6). By that age, kittens are 80-90% of their final size (6). Teenage cats push boundaries and try new things, trying to get a sense of the world and their place in it (6). They’ll put on more muscle mass (6) and start to lose their kitten fluff. Kittens are quite fully mature at the end of their first year, but they’re almost there (6). A few more months and they’ll be all grown up (6).

Myth #3: Kittens must be six months old before they can be spayed/neutered.

It used to be the conventional wisdom that kittens needed to be six months old to be sterilized. Sometimes veterinarians may still recommend this. However, we now know that she-cats can have their first heat as early as four months old, and they can have kittens the first time they go into heat. In other words, it’s possible for a kitten to have kittens, which can lead to complications that a full-grown queen would not have. These days, it is becoming more common to instead recommend that a kitten be at least eight weeks old and at least two pounds (0.91 kg) to be sterilized (1, 6, 7). This prevents a lot more unwanted heat cycles and pregnancies.

Works Cited

  1. Alley Cat Allies. (n.d.). How old is that kitten? Kitten progression: At-a-glance. Alleycat.org. https://www.alleycat.org/resources/kitten-progression/
  2. Bukowski, J. A. and Aiello, S. (2011, July). Breeding and reproduction of cats. Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/routine-care-and-breeding-of-cats/breeding-and-reproduction-of-cats
  3. E-staff. (2007, June 21). Mothering myths & truths. CatWatch. Retrieved from https://www.catwatchnewsletter.com/features/mothering-myths-truths/
  4. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat birth. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-birth/
  5. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat pregnancy. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-pregnancy/
  6. Moore, A. (2001). The kitten owner’s manual. Storey Publishing: North Adams, Massachusetts.
  7. Shaw, H. (n.d.). Determining a kitten’s age. Kitten Lady. http://www.kittenlady.org/age
  8. Stregowski, J. (2020, October 17). How to care for a pregnant cat. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/care-of-a-pregnant-cat-555417
  9. Syufy, F. (2019, October 22). Cat pregnancy stages. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/cat-pregnancy-stages-555411

Published March 21, 2021

Science

Feline Reproduction, Part I: Breeding Cycles and Mating

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Cartoon of feline reproductive cycle
Image by Clker-Free-Vector-Images from Pixabay

When I was doing research for a previous article, I learned something that really shocked me. I read two papers about the reasons people gave for surrendering their cats and dogs to shelters. In both, the researchers included some basic pet knowledge questions in the surveys (7, 10). I was floored at how many of the study participants didn’t know the correct answers to some really fundamental questions about canine/feline reproduction and behavior. The surveys addressed a very specific population of people, obviously, but a very important one. If they had known those things before getting a pet, might that have prevented some of those cats and dogs from ending up in a shelter?

I am only one human, but I want to do my part by adding to the available educational resources. One of the knowledge deficits among cat owners surrendering their pets involved feline reproduction (7, 10), so I am going to do a two-part series on that selfsame topic. Throughout, I will bust some commonly-held myths about the feline circle of life.

Female Reproductive Cycle

She-cats, a.k.a. mollies, or queens if they’re mothers, reach sexual maturity at about six months old (2, 6, 8). However, they may hit puberty as early as four months or as late as eighteen (9). The sign that the time has come is that they go into their first estrus, or heat, cycle.

Estrus is a period of sexual readiness during which a she-cat will seek out and accept male cats. In nature, cats usually have a breeding season that is determined by the length of the daylight (5, 9). In the northern hemisphere, it lasts from about January to October (3, 5, 6, 8, 9). However, cats that live in consistently warm climates or indoors-only may experience the breeding season year-round (5, 6, 9). When in season, she-cats go into heat every 2-3 weeks unless they become pregnant (2, 9). Heat lasts an average of six days (6, 8). This pattern of multiple estrus cycles per breeding season is called seasonal polyestry.

So, how do you know if your cat is in heat? It’s unmistakable if you know what to expect, but can actually be pretty alarming if you don’t. She-cats in heat may roll around on the floor, rub up against things, become very affectionate, yowl, and urinate more or mark outside the litter box (2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12). The yowling of a she-cat in heat is loud, frequent, and unique. Unfamiliar owners often think their cat is ill or in pain. In truth, the crazy sound their cat is making is meant to attract toms from far and wide. She-cats in heat also assume a posture called lordosis, especially when their backs or hindquarters are touched. Lordosis involves lowering their front, raising their rear, treading their hind paws, and moving their tail to the side to indicate receptiveness for mating (9).

If you don’t know what heat looks and sounds like, this is a perfect example.

She-cats are able and willing to mate many times during an estrus cycle, often with multiple toms. Should they become pregnant, they may have kittens with different fathers in the same litter (3, 5, 6). She-cats are fertile from their very first heat and never experience menopause (2, 12). They can also have kittens more than once per breeding season. Basically, cats can have a lot of kittens over their lifetime. The Guinness Book of World Records lists the she-cat with the most kittens as Dusty, a cat from Texas whose last litter in 1952 put her at 420 kittens (12)!

Myth #1 – She-cats should have one heat/litter before being spayed

There is a fairly widespread belief that female cats–and dogs, too–are better off in some way if they have one estrus cycle or one litter in their lives (7, 10). Some people think that she-cats will be healthier if they have one heat or one litter before they are spayed (4). Others believe that she-cats who have kittens are friendlier (6). Neither of these things are true. The evidence shows that she-cats who are spayed before their first estrus are typically healthier (4). And while she-cats do have strong maternal instincts, having kittens does not change a cat’s overall personality (6).

Myth #2 – Cats should not be sterilized at all because it is unnatural/unhealthy.

As my mother always says, “Arsenic is natural.” Natural doesn’t necessarily mean good. Certainly, cats would not undergo surgery of any kind in the wild. Then again, if not for humans enabling their self-domestication, there would be no cats in the wild. I’m pretty sure one could argue what’s natural and what’s not here in circles ad infinitum. What should matter isn’t what’s the most natural but what’s the best for our cats.

In that regard, sterilization is not unhealthy. In fact, it can be quite the opposite. It prevents uterine infections as well as mammary and testicular cancers (1, 8).

Male Reproductive Cycle

Male cats, called toms, reach sexual maturity about the same time as she-cats (2, 13). However, at three months they are producing enough testosterone to start growing their penile spines (13). Yes, you read what you thought you read. Cats have spines on their penises. Quite a few mammals do, actually. There are several possible reasons why this bizarre trait evolved. We will get to why cats are thought to have them later on. The penile spines in cats are testosterone-dependent (9, 13). They finish growing when the tom reaches sexual maturity (9, 13). However, if he is neutered, the spines disappear (9).

Hissing ginger tabby cat
Image by Candid_Shots from Pixabay

The spines aren’t the only sign that a tom is all grown up. Toms begin exhibiting male sexual behavior at puberty, if not earlier. These behaviors include aggression toward other males/fighting, urine spraying to mark territory, and extensive roaming to look for mates (2, 13). Toms that are kept indoors may go to great lengths to escape, especially if there are no eligible she-cats in the household (1, 2). Unlike she-cats, toms don’t exhibit this behavior cyclically. Toms stay interested in mating year-round, although they exhibit decreased interest outside the breeding season if they are exposed to the environmental factors that regulate feline reproductive cycles (13).

Myth #3 – If I neuter my tomcat, he will feel like less of a man.

There is no evidence that cats feel any sexual identity or ego about their reproductive organs (1, 4). Toms do not exhibit an emotional reaction or go into crisis when neutered (4). Neutering does not change their personality (4). It does alter or eliminate the behaviors associate with reproduction, but that does not have a negative impact on a tom’s mental health.

Myth #4 – Sterilizing my cat will make him/her get fat and lazy.

This one came up quite a bit when I was Googling myths about cats to make sure I covered everything. I’ve heard this one before, too. I have to say I wasn’t super satisfied with the answers I saw on some of the other websites. They just said that overfeeding and lack of exercise are the culprits for weight gain, not sterilization. Here’s the thing. There’s a little grain of truth to this myth. Neutering/spaying a cat doesn’t make them fat and lazy, but it does decrease their activity level somewhat, especially for toms.

Cats of both sexes pursue mates. Toms range far and wide searching for she-cats in heat, and may break into or out of houses. That involves a lot of exercise. Once neutered, they have no need to do that. If they are receiving the same amount of food as before, they might gain weight and seem to be getting fat and lazy. The same could apply to she-cats, to a lesser extent. This isn’t to say that sterilization is bad, just that pet parents need to be vigilant about diet and exercise after the procedure.

How Kittens are Made

So Tom and Molly have found each other. Actually, several Toms may have found Molly. Up to six cats may follow a she-cat in heat, but eventually someone will approach her and see if she will accept his advance (13). If she finds him acceptable, she will assume the lordosis position. The tom then bites the scruff of her neck, mounts, mates, and dismounts (5, 8, 13). The whole process takes between 30 seconds and five minutes (8, 13). As the male dismounts, the female gives a yowl, called a copulatory call (8, 9). She then has an “after-reaction,” which frequently includes striking out at the tom, licking her genitals, and rolling around (9).

Two kittens in sexual play
Older male kittens sometimes try to practice mating behavior during play – Image from Veterian Key

No one knows for sure why she-cats often strike at toms after mating (5). It may be that the withdrawal of the male’s penis, covered with backward-facing spines, is painful, but there isn’t any definitive proof one way or the other (5). Those spines are necessary for conception, however. Cats are induced ovulators. This means that the females only release eggs for fertilization in response to a particular stimulus. For cats, that stimulus is mating. The penile spines of the tom stimulating the she-cat’s vagina is the signal for her body to release eggs (9, 12).

One pair of cats is likely to mate about six times within a couple hours before the she-cat declines him, and both may move one to another mate (8, 13). A study at the University of Minnesota found that 73.9% of she-cats who were bred an average of 5.6 times per estrus cycle became pregnant (9). Free-breeding cats are likely to mate many more times than that per heat (5).

Works Cited

  1. American Society for the Protection of Animals. (2017, February 16). Fact or fiction? Spay/neuter myths busted. ASPCA. https://www.aspca.org/news/fact-or-fiction-spayneuter-myths-busted
  2. Bond Vet. (2020, August 12). Cat reproduction: Heat cycles, pregnancies, and more. Bond Vet. https://bondvet.com/b/cat-reproduction
  3. Bukowski, J. A. and Aiello, S. (2011, July). Breeding and reproduction of cats. Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/routine-care-and-breeding-of-cats/breeding-and-reproduction-of-cats
  4. Humane Society International. (n.d.). Why spay/neuter is important. https://www.hsi.org/news-media/why_spayneuter_important/
  5. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat pregnancy. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-pregnancy/
  6. Llera, R. and Yuill, C. (n.d.). Estrous cycles in cats. VCA Hospitals. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/estrus-cycles-in-cats
  7. New, J. C., Jr., Salman, M. D., King, M., Scarlett, J. M., et al. (2010). Characteristics of shelter-relinquished animals and their owners compared with animals and their owners in U.S. pet-owning households. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3(3), 179-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327604JAWS0303_1
  8. Parrish, J. (n.d.). Reproduction in the canine and feline. Online Reproduction Courses Taught by John Parrish. http://www.ansci.wisc.edu/jjp1/ansci_repro/lec/lec_25_dog_cat/lec25out.htm
  9. Root Kustritz, M. V. (n.d.). Feline reproduction: An overview (proceedings). dvm360. https://www.dvm360.com/view/feline-reproduction-overview-proceedings
  10. Scarlett, J. M., Salman, M. D., New, J. G., Jr., and Kass, P. H. (1999). Reasons for relinquishment of companion animals in U.S. animal shelters: Selected health and personal issues. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 2(1). 41-57. doi: 10.1207/s15327604jaws0201_4
  11. Syufy, F. (2020, January 7). Guide to cat mating and reproduction. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/cat-mating-and-reproduction-555437
  12. Syufy, F. (2020, May 4). Do cats have menopause? The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/do-cats-have-menopause-555438
  13. Veterian Key. (2016, December 22). Male feline sexual behavior. https://veteriankey.com/male-feline-sexual-behavior/

Published March 7, 2021

Behavior

Why do cats purr?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Brown tabby cat in lap
Image by Hans Braxmeier from Pixabay

What could bring more joy than a purring kitty curled up in your lap? And there are so many different kinds of purrs. Some cats purr like a lawn mower engine, and some are so quiet you could barely hear them with your ear on their chest. Purring is a uniquely feline behavior. We associate it with happy kitties, but cats actually purr under a lot of different circumstances. This rather odd sound must serve a purpose besides being adorable. So why do cats purr?

Anatomy of the Purr

First things first: what even is purring? As someone who used to try it for myself as a child, I promise it doesn’t come naturally if you aren’t a cat. There was a lot of debate about how cats purred for a long time. One prominent theory was that the purring sound came from a change in the cat’s blood flow [1, 4, 6]. Now, biologists are generally agreed that cats purr using the muscles of their larynx and diaphragm [1, 3-5, 7]. By vibrating their larynx, which in turn vibrates their hyoid bone [5], a cat causes the air in their throat to vibrate as well, creating the sound we know as purring [1, 6].

Most vocalizations can only be made when exhaling. It just makes sense. You need air in your lungs to push through your larynx to talk, sing, laugh, etc. The same is true of other animals. However, cats can purr on the exhale and the inhale, which is what enables them to purr constantly [1-5, 7]. This is due to the continual vibration of the larynx as they breathe in and out through it [1].

Cats Purr to Communicate

Cats first start to purr by the time they are a week old [1, 2, 4]. The purring of her newborns may signal to a queen their location and wellbeing [1, 2, 4]. It is thought that each kitten has a unique purr their mother can recognize so that she can tell which of her babies is communicating with her [2].

Queens will also purr for their kittens [5, 6]. One reason may be to provide a tactile cue to help blind and deaf newborn kittens locate the milk supply [6]. Even though very young kittens can’t hear the purring yet, they can feel the vibrations because they are, ideally, never far away. Alternatively, the mother’s purring may disguise the soft mews of the kittens from the ears of predators [5]. Whatever the evolutionary reason, purring cements the bond between queen and kittens [5].

Some adult cats purr when feeding, possibly a throwback to that kittenhood behavior [1]. Cats may also purr to inform their person that they want their food, now please [1]! The purr of solicitation sounds different from the snuggly purr [1]. What’s the difference? It’s hard to say for sure. Our lack of knowledge about how cats communicate with each other makes it harder to understand the nuances of how they communicate with us.

One thing that’s certain is cats in the wild purr when they groom each other [1]. Grooming is an important part of a cat’s daily life and a positive social interaction between cats who have a bond. Perhaps this comes closest to the contended purring of a cat that is lying in a warm lap or being petted.

Mother cat and kittens in barn
Queens and their kittens purr to communicate – Image by Franz W. from Pixabay

Healing Vibrations

Cats don’t just purr for happy reasons. They sometimes purr when they’re stressed, scared, injured, or dying [1, 3-5, 7, 8]. Cats have sometimes been seen lying alongside another, injured cat, both purring [7]. This is called “purr therapy” because the purring is believed to be a way of comforting the injured cat [7]. In stressful situations, purring can serve as a method of self-soothing [7]. However, it may be an even more powerful tool than that.

Cats purr at a frequency of 20-150 Hertz [1, 3]. These low-frequency vibrations have demonstrated healing benefits [1, 3, 4, 7, 8]. 25 and 50 Hz frequencies promote bone growth and fracture healing [8]. 100 Hz has therapeutic use for pain, wound healing, swelling, and difficulty breathing [8]. It may seem far-fetched, but bones do respond to pressure by hardening [1, 7]. And there is a good evolutionary reason why cats might vibrate their way to good health.

Cats are ambush predators. This means they spend a lot of their time resting and waiting in-between hunts. Purring could have evolved as a low-energy way to stimulate their muscles and bones while stationary [3, 7]. Then their bones wouldn’t weaken or become brittle over time from lack of use [7]. Interestingly, researchers have proposed just such a fix for astronauts. Muscle atrophy and bone density loss are a big problem on long space missions where the lack of gravity prevents normal exercise. Vibrating foot plates have been suggested to stimulate astronauts’ bones and prevent them from losing density [7]. It seems the cats had that figured out a long time ago.

Do All Cats Purr?

Probably not, but it kind of depends upon how you define purring, apparently. Once upon a time in the early 1800s, biologists believed that cats could either roar or purr, but it was impossible to do both [7]. This is how cats came to be divided into the “big cats,” or subfamily Pantherinae, and the “small cats,” subfamily Felinae [6, 7]. Although most big cats are larger than most small cats, those names are actually a misnomer, since the smallest of the “big cats,” the clouded leopard, is smaller than the biggest of the small cats, the puma [7]. The basis of the division on roaring vs. purring is also probably inaccurate.

Two sleepy bobcats
Housecats aren’t the only ones that purr! – Image by Amber Stevens from Pixabay

The Pantherinae cats have a rope of tough, flexible cartilage where the Felinae have only the hyoid bone [5, 6]. This gives the larynx greater flexibility so that roaring is possible, although lions are the only ones to make regular use of this ability [5, 6]. Does this mean they can’t purr, though? These days, biologists tend to believe than most cats can purr, or at least something like it [3, 7]. Some call it a purr-like vocalization or a hum rather than a true purr [3, 4, 6].

Even granting that most cats can actually purr, some of the Pantherinae are usually believed to be exceptions: lions, leopards, jaguars, tigers, snow leopards, and clouded leopards [7]. But that may yet prove untrue. The anthropologist and animal behaviorist Elizabeth Marshall Thomas suggests that big cats may reserve purring for their cubs and that is why people think they don’t purr at all [6]. We simply aren’t around when they do.

Works Cited

  1. Dowling, S. (2018, July 25). The complicated truth about a cat’s purr. BBC Future. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20180724-the-complicated-truth-about-a-cats-purr
  2. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  3. Lyons, L. A. (2006, April 3). Why do cats purr? Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-cats-purr/
  4. Science Reference Section. (2019, November 19). Why and how do cats purr? Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/item/why-and-how-do-cats-purr/
  5. Stewart, D. (1995, April 1). Do lions purr? And why are there no green mammals? The National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/1995/Questions-and-Answers-About-Wildlife
  6. Thomas, E. M. (1994). The tribe of tiger: Cats and their culture. Simon & Schuster: New York.
  7. Venton, D. (2015, May 8). Why do cats purr? It’s not just because they’re happy. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2015/05/why-do-cats-purr/
  8. von Muggenthaler, E. (2001). The felid purr: A healing mechanism? The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 110(5), 2666. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4777098

Published February 7, 2021

Updated June 20, 2022

Behavior

Why do cats raise their butts when you pet them?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

By special request from Brooke B.

White and brown cat stretching
Photo by Tamba Budiarsana from Pexels

You are probably familiar with the feline behavior amusingly termed “elevator butt.” Stroke a cat along the length of their spine or scratch them at the base of their tail, and they are likely to stick that posterior up in the air. My parents’ cat, Rosenberg, actually stands all the way up. It’s a foolproof way to get her out of your spot on the couch. But, why? It’s a pretty weird thing to do. When my friend asked me to find the answer for her, I honestly didn’t think I’d be able to. I mean, yeah, I wanted to know, too, but would there really be any behaviorists out there devoting their brains to the mystery of why cats raise their butts when you pet them? Sometimes I’m thrilled to be wrong. Not only did I find answers, but they’re really quite interesting.

The Importance of Body Language

Cats can’t just tell us how they feel, but they communicate a lot without words. One reason your cat might lift their hindquarters in response to petting is to tell you “oh yeah, that’s the spot–more of that please” (3-5). They’re leaning into the pleasurable sensation (1, 2). The hips and base of the tail have lots of nerve endings, so many cats really enjoy being pet or scratched there and want to tell you to keep going (1, 2). It’s also difficult for cats to reach those spots when grooming, so you may be scratching an itch kitty just can’t reach on their own (1, 2).

In addition, cats present their rears as a friendly greeting (1, 4, 5). Another cat would sniff the scents coming from their anal glands to learn more about them (1). Your cat probably knows from experience that you won’t put your nose under their tail, but their instincts still tell them that a raised butt communicates trust and friendliness (1).

By the same token, cats may exhibit this behavior as a way to mark the person petting them with their scent from their anal glands (1, 2, 5). That may sound gross, but it’s similar to when cats rub you with their cheeks, another place where they have scent glands. They just want to lay claim to a favorite person or someone who is making them happy by petting them in just the right spot (1, 2, 5). The pheromones from a cat’s scent glands are undetectable to the human nose, but other cats can smell them and tell whose human you are (2).

Are You My Mommy?

There is a theory that cats raise their butts in response to petting as a holdover from when they were young kittens (1, 2, 4, 5). Kittens aren’t able to do much for themselves at first. That includes grooming, which they rely on their mothers for until they get the hang of it. Young kittens stick their posteriors in the air so their mothers can clean them (1, 2, 4).

White mother cat and kittens
Photo by freestocks.org from Pexels

Our pet cats have a complex relationship with us in which they view us partly as surrogate parents (1, 2, 4, 6). When they feel their person stroking their back the way their mother’s tongue once ran down their fur, they may react the same way they did as kittens.

But What If…

…My Cat Doesn’t Do This?

If your cat doesn’t put their rear end to the sky when you pet their back, it doesn’t mean they hate you. If you just got your cat, it could be because they haven’t quite warmed up to you yet (2). But some cats just don’t enjoy being pet around the base of the tail like others do. The concentration of nerves endings that makes it feel so good to a lot of cats can actually make it unpleasant for others (1, 2). Other cats may like a little petting in that sweet spot but quickly become overstimulated (1, 3).

If your cat used to get elevator butt and really seem to enjoy those back scratches, but suddenly they don’t, or your cat seems to react with pain when touched around the hips/tail base, this could be cause for concern (1, 2). Skin allergies, impacted anal glands, spinal problems, and kidney disease can cause pain in that area (1, 2). Take your cat to the veterinarian if you notice any signs of pain in their lower back.

…My Cat Does This Without Being Pet?

If you have an intact (un-spayed) she-cat, you may notice that sometimes she gets elevator butt not only when you pet her, but apparently out of the blue. This is called lordosis and is an indication that a she-cat is in estrus, or heat (2, 3). Lordosis looks slightly different from regular elevator butt because it’s actually the she-cat presenting herself to a tom for mating–whether a tom is present or not (2, 3). She turns her tail to the side and may tread her hind paws (3). She cats in heat will usually do this a lot, including almost any time they are pet.

Works Cited

  1. Ask-a-Vet Member. (n.d.). How cats use their posteriors in friendly body language. CatHealth.com. https://www.cathealth.com/behavior/how-and-why/1224-cat-posterior
  2. FAQCats Team. (n.d.). Why do cats raise their back when you pet them: Behavior traits. FAQCats. https://faqcats.com/why-do-cats-raise-their-back-when-you-pet-them/
  3. Johnson-Bennett, P. (n.d.). Why do cats raise their butts in the air? Cat Behavior Associates. https://catbehaviorassociates.com/why-do-cats-raise-their-butts-in-the-air/
  4. ourcatsworld (2016, March 4). Why do cats raise their butts in the air? Our Cats’ World. https://ourcatsworld.com/2016/03/why-do-cats-raise-their-butts-in-the-air/
  5. Parker, R. (n.d.). Why do cats arch their backs when you pet them? SeniorCatWellness.com. https://www.seniorcatwellness.com/cats-arch-backs-when-petted/
  6. Thomas, E.M. (1994). The tribe of tiger: Cats and their culture. Simon & Schuster.

Published January 10, 2021

Cat Care

Should You Give Kittens as Christmas Gifts?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Do you remember FurReal toys? They probably still exist, but I remember one year when I was little, the FurReal Friends cat was a hot toy for Christmas. And I wanted it. Bless her, my mom managed to get one. I woke up Christmas morning to an orange-and-white robo-kitty. It was pretty cool. Electronic toys were a little bit of a novelty even then. And it was like having a cuddly kitty, too! Well, in a janky robot sort of way. But as is sometimes the case with children and their toys, I got bored of it after a while. I’ve never wanted to give pets as gifts, for any holiday or occasion, for that very reason. But animatronic toys aren’t real pets, and I’m no expert. So what do the actual authorities think about gifting pets?

I found it! It’s so much creepier than I remember…

Reasons to Gift

Anyone who has been lucky enough to have a pet in their life understands the joy that pets bring. It goes without saying why we might want to give that joy to someone we love. That’s not to mention all the homeless pets out there who deserve a family. But I had heard my whole life it’s a bad idea to give pets as gifts. I was surprised to learn how much support there is in the animal welfare and rescue community for the practice.

Starting in the 1990s, several research groups studied the reasons that people surrender animals to shelters (1, 2, 3). The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) followed up with a study that specifically considered pets given as gifts (3). In 1999, Scarlett et al. surveyed pet owners who surrendered their cats and dogs to county animals shelters with a focus on any “health and personal issues” that influenced them to do so (1). Of the ten major reasons given, the pet being an unwanted gift came dead last for both cats and dogs (1). The #1 reason? For cats, it was allergies, and for dogs, it was not having enough time (1).

New, Jr. et al. compared surrendered pets and their former owners to homed pets and their owners (2). They considered the source of the pets as a possible factor, and in some cases there was a significant difference. For example, cats and dogs purchased from pet shops were more likely to be given up (2). But the proportion of pets that had been gifts was the same in shelters as in homes (2). In other words, it made no difference in the rate of surrender that an animal had been a gift.

Most recently, the ASPCA decided to take a hard look at what happens when we give pets as gifts. In their 2013 study, they created a telephone survey to find and interview people who had been given a pet in the past ten years (3). The three survey questions of interest were:

  1. Were you involved, in any manner, in the selection process of the pet that you received as a gift?
  2. Did receiving a pet as a gift increase, decrease, or have no impact on your love or attachment to the pet?
  3. Is that pet still with you?
Tabby kitten with red gift ribbon on head
Photo by Avel Chuklanov on Unsplash

Most people said that they were either involved in picking out their gifted pet, or they were were surprised and okay with that (3). 97.2% reported that receiving their pet as a gift either didn’t change how much love/attachment they felt or actually increased it (3). Only seven of the 222 pet owners surveyed said that they felt less attached because their pet was a gift (3). Only 9.8% said that the pet was now in a new home (3). In the vast majority of cases, respondents still had the pet, but about as many had since died as been rehomed (3).

To summarize all those numbers, the data suggest that most of the time, the gift of a pet is appreciated. So these days, more animal welfare groups and rescue organizations support giving pets as gifts. After all, one of their primary goals is to get as many pets as possible into forever homes. As long as those gifted animals aren’t being returned to sender, at least no more than any others, then it’s just another way to get pets out of shelters and into loving homes.

Reasons Not to Gift

Contradicting all of that painstaking research are the statements of shelter staff and volunteers who say that surrenders see a surge around the holidays. Audra Stillabower, a Veterinary Information Specialist at the Pet Poison Helpline who worked in shelters for eight years, reports a spike in surrenders both before and after the holiday season (4). Before, because people are surrendering older pets to make way for new ones, and after because people realize they don’t want that live holiday present after all (4). Executive Director Cheryl Miller of the Wichita County, Texas Humane Society echoes that sad sentiment (5).

“I would bet we get at least ten calls a week with people having animals that ‘we just don’t have time,’ ‘this was given to us as a gift,'” says Anne Halbert of January at her Nebraska shelter, Start Over Rover (6). How can this be the case when there is so much data to support the position that people don’t usually abandon gifted pets? I couldn’t find an answer. I wonder if location makes a difference. Gina Knepp, a spokesperson for Front Street Animal Shelter in Sacramento, California, said “We don’t see a higher rate of abandonments during this time of year as compared to other times of the year” (7).

I don’t know about Wichita County, but I know that Nebraska tends to get a lot of wintry weather, and Sacramento very much does not. I could see why the best time to get a new puppy that needs to go outside, like, every twenty minutes wouldn’t be when there’s two feet of snow on the ground. It’s just a theory, though, and the weather probably wouldn’t have as much of an impact on whether someone kept a new cat or not. Whatever the reason for the discrepancy, we know that some gifted pets are “returned.” If you choose to give a pet as a gift, it’s your responsibility to think some things through first. And if you are not absolutely certain that the person is interested in a pet, do not give them a pet (4, 7-10).

Pomeranian dog in red gift box
Photo by Jill Wellington from Pexels

The Best Way to Give a Gift that Keeps on Purring

It is very important for a new pet to fit well with their new owner and that person’s life. There are a couple ways that you, as the one intending to give the pet, can ensure that your gift is a good one. One is to take the recipient with you and pick out the pet together (4, 8, 10). Another is to buy an adoption certificate instead of a pet and give that as the gift (7, 8, 9). Adoption certificates are offered at many shelters and allow you to pay the adoption fees without taking home a pet. Then, the recipient can go pick out whatever pet they want. Or, if they decide they don’t want a pet, the gift ends up being a donation to the shelter in the honor. That’s not a bad deal either.

In terms of presentation, a cute suggestion is tying a note or adoption certificate to a plush/toy pet (9). After all, live animals don’t really belong in wrapped boxes, under Christmas trees, etc. The only pet I can think of that is appropriate to actually package up would be sea monkeys. Maybe an ant farm? But that’s it. No matter what the movies sometimes tell us.

Because pets are expensive, it would be courteous to provide some extras with the pet, especially if you know the recipient doesn’t have all the equipment already. Maybe wrap up a pet starter kit to give them the day of the holiday or special occasion (7, 8).

If you decide to give pets as gifts this holiday season or any time in the future, do so wisely but also in the knowledge that the data says it is a good way to give animals loving homes. And remember, adopt, don’t shop! Choose to give pets from shelters and rescues. Even purebred cats and dogs and unusual pet species can be found in these places. Don’t purchase a pet from a breeder when there are homeless ones waiting for that special someone already. I don’t know about you, but saving an animal’s life sounds like an amazing gift to me.

Works Cited

  1. Scarlett, J.M., Salman, M.D., New Jr., J.D., Kass, P.H. (1999). Reasons for relinquishment of companion animals in U.S. animal shelters: Selected health and personal issues. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 2(1), 41-57. doi: 10.1207/s15327604jaws0201_4
  2. New Jr., J.D., Salman, M.D., King, M., Scarlett, J.M., et al. (2000). Characteristics of shelter-relinquished animals and their owners compared with animals and their owners in U.S. pet-owning households. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3(3), 179-201. doi: 10.1207/S15327604JAWS0303_1
  3. Weiss, E., Dolan, E.D., Garrison, L., Hong, J., et al. (2013). Should dogs and cats be given as gifts? Animals, 3, 995-1001. doi: 10.3390/ani3040995
  4. Stillabower, A. (n.d.). Giving animals as Christmas gifts. Pet Poison Helpline. https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/blog/giving-animals-christmas-gifts/
  5. Connor, C. (2019, December 3). Plan ahead before giving pets as a Christmas gift. News Channel 6 Now. https://www.newschannel6now.com/2019/12/04/plan-ahead-before-giving-pets-christmas-gift/
  6. Dickeson, K. (2019, December 4). Animal shelters advise against giving pets as holiday gifts. KSNB Local 4 Hastings. https://www.ksnblocal4.com/content/news/Animal-shelters-advise-against-giving-pets-as-holiday-gifts-565809791.html
  7. Escalante, E. (2018, December 18). Pets as Christmas gifts: Why shelters say it’s okay to give a pet as a gift. ABC 10. link here
  8. Picard, C. (2019, July 24). Why pets can make good gifts, according to animal adoption experts. Good Housekeeping. Retrieved from https://www.goodhousekeeping.com/life/pets/a28410545/why-pets-make-good-gifts/
  9. Mettler, L. (n.d.). Pets as presents: A good idea? Petfinder.com. https://www.petfinder.com/pet-adoption/dog-adoption/pets-as-presents/
  10. Oregon Veterinary Medical Association. (2017, December 18). Giving pets as gifts: Consider the choice carefully. https://oregonvma.org/care-health/basics/giving-pets-gifts

Published December 7th, 2020

Updated May 12th, 2023

Cat Care

In Search of the Best Cat Food, Part III: Kitten, Adult, & Senior Diets

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

The pet food industry offers diets for every stage of a cat’s life, from formula for newborn kittens to senior cat food. The kitten milk-replacement is one thing, but what’s the difference between solid food for kittens, adults, and seniors? And what about the cat food that says it’s for “all life stages”? Today we look at the difference between diets for the various life stages and what really matters for your cat.

Cat and two kittens eating from bowls
Image by mariahuusgaard from Pixabay

Kitten Food

Before doing this research, I knew there was at least one difference between kitten food and any other cat food. I took Joon in when she was about four months old, and I was living with a roommate that already had a cat. Domino is a gorgeous tuxedo cat with spooky yellow eyes, and she was quite pudgy. My roommate had to put her on a diet, and Domino was not a fan. She kept eating Joon’s food, which Joon was too busy playing to care about. My vet told me I should be careful to keep her from doing this, because kitten food is high in calories.

It makes sense, doesn’t it? Kittens are still growing rapidly, and as they get older they use up a lot of energy playing as well. In fact, kittens may need up to three times as many calories as an adult cat each day (1, 2, 3)! And they have higher protein requirements than adults, as well, needing to get about 30% of all that energy from protein (2). Most of the rest of the calories need to come from fat to ensure that they get enough essential fatty acids for proper development (1). Kittens need lots of vitamins and minerals as well. Basically, like all babies, kittens need lots of nutrients in their diet so they can grow up big and strong. So kitten food is made more nutrient-dense than adult food.

The Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) requires kitten food to be at least 30% protein and 9% fat on a dry matter basis (4). A survey of 212 adult and kitten foods by IdleCat found that kitten foods actually averaged 40.77% protein for kibble and 49.11% protein for canned food (3). The fat content was a little closer to the minimum recommendation, but for both kinds of food was more than 21% higher than the average fat content of the adult foods (3). Carbohydrate and fiber content were lower to compensate (3). Vitamins and minerals weren’t measured in that survey, but in a well-balanced kitten food they should be present in higher amounts as well.

Kitten food is also made to be easier for small mouths with developing teeth to eat. Canned kitten diets are typically softer, and the kibble comes in smaller pieces (1). However, the nutritional differences are what is most likely to impact a cat’s health. Adult cat food is usually not nutrient-dense enough for kittens, although it will do temporarily in a pinch (5). Conversely, as my vet told me, kitten food can cause adult cats to gain too much weight. Depending on the nutrients included, the extra vitamins and minerals could even cause toxicity in an adult cat (1). A few bites here or there is unlikely to cause anybody any harm–Domino is certainly none the worse for it–but kittens need kitten food and adults should be kept away from it as best we can.

Cats are considered kittens up to one year of age, with the exception of some large breeds. Maine Coons do not reach maturity for up to two years. If you are unsure how long to keep feeding your cat a kitten diet, check with your veterinarian.

Tortoiseshell cat eating from bowl
Image by sweetlouise from Pixabay

Adult Cat Food

Adult cat foods are formulated to maintain a grown cat’s weight and health. Growth and development never completely stop. All organisms continue to make new cells, repair damaged tissues, and progress through their life cycle as long as they live. However, an adult cat uses much less energy than a kitten to do these things, so they need far fewer calories and other nutrients relative to their body weight. This is reflected in the nutritive content of adult cat food.

The AAFCO divides their standards for cat food into two categories: “growth and reproduction,” for kittens and pregnant or lactating queens, and “adult maintenance” for the average, older, and sterilized adult cat (6). The minimum protein content for adult maintenance is 4% lower than the recommendation for kittens and queens. The fat minimum is the same, but 5 out of 12 mineral recommendations are lower for adults, as well as Vitamin A (4). These minerals and vitamin can cause toxicity in excess, which is more likely in adult cats who use less of the nutrients than a growing kitten or a queen who is growing kittens.

Cats are typically considered “adults” from the age of one year to seven years, although this varies some by breed and individual cat (7). Those of us with rescue cats often don’t know exactly how old they are, so you and your vet may have to play it by ear to decide when the time seems right to start treating your cat like a senior.

Senior Cat Food

In the United States, the AAFCO is the government body responsible for licensing pet food, and as previously indicated, they don’t issue standards for senior cat food. The consequence of this is that senior cat food is very similar to adult cat food, with some slight modifications that won’t color outside the AAFCO adult cat food guidelines (8). Whether this is a bad thing or not is hard to say. A lot remains unknown about the needs of senior cats. Due to lack of research, many of the decisions made about how to feed senior pets have been made based on what is known about aging humans (9). Even so, there have been improvements in senior cat diets over the years.

But some cats may not need to go on a senior diet at all, or not until much later in life. If an older cat is keeping up their body weight and muscle condition on their adult diet, there’s no need to change them to a senior diet (8). If a senior kitty begins to gain or lose weight or lose muscle mass and no associated health problem is found, a change in diet may be in order (8). However, senior cat diets can be pretty different from one another. Of course, cats with age-related health problems may be put on a diet specific to their needs. If your vet recommends just plain senior cat food, however, the variability in formulations can be overwhelming.

Fat tortoiseshell cat
Cats sometimes gain weight as they get older – Image by Quinn Kampschroer from Pixabay

It used to be the case that senior cat food was low protein, low fat, and high fiber (8), and the myth that senior cats need a diet low in protein still persists. Some health conditions may call for a low-protein diet, but a normal senior cat may suffer greater muscle loss with less protein (9).

Whether or not senior cats need more protein than adult cats is still unclear, however, and may depend upon the individual cat. If they are notably losing muscle mass, then a high-protein senior diet may be the solution (10). There are still senior diets made with low amounts of protein, all the way to those with enhanced protein, so it pays to check the label. Remember that it’s the dry weight of the nutrients that you need to compare, as the amounts on pet food labels are given in minimum and maximum percentages instead of absolute quantities. Check out this page for a rundown of how that math works.

Senior formulas may be low-calorie, hence the traditional wisdom of making them high-fiber, and for some cats this is appropriate. Generally, cats tend to have progressively slower metabolisms up to eleven years of age and are prone to obesity during middle age, around years six to eight (11). Once they get older than that, they often start to lose weight and may need high calorie diets (11).

Sometimes a vet may actually put a senior cat on a kitten diet if weight loss is a major issue, simply to get enough calories into them (8). In milder cases, a more calorie-dense senior food may be the way to go. If your cat has the opposite problem, well, low-calorie is where it’s at. Both obesity and being underweight can cause significant health problems or be symptoms of them, so keep a close eye on the body condition of older cats. If something changes, always have a vet check for disease before trying to treat the problem with diet alone.

There are other variables as well, such as dietary phosphorous and sodium, which sometimes matter for senior cats if they have certain health problems (9). If your cat has any health issues but they don’t require a medical diet, ask your veterinarian if there is anything you should be on the lookout for when choosing their food.

All Life Stages Cat Food

In order for a pet food to claim that it is “complete and balanced” for all life stages, it must meet the standards set by the AAFCO for both the growth and reproduction and adult maintenance stages. Because the minimums for certain nutrients are higher in the growth/reproduction stage, and there are only a few maximums, “all life stages” food may be too nutrient-dense for some adult cats (12). The food has to have enough nutrients for every stage of life, so it makes sense that what you end up with is more like the food intended for kittens and queens. They have higher nutrient requirements.

Opinions are divided, but I found that veterinarians seemed most inclined to think that food for all life stages was really not appropriate for adult or senior cats (12, 13). Pet food companies had the more mixed advice. Personally, I think all life stages food is great for keeping on hand if you find a stray cat or kitten you need to assist, as you never know what age they might be, and the extra nutrients are probably not a bad idea. It’s not what I would feed my cats at home, though.

Works Cited

  1. Paretts, S. (n.d.). What is the difference between kitten and cat food? The Nest. https://pets.thenest.com/difference-between-kitten-cat-food-6832.html
  2. ASPCA. (n.d.). Cat nutrition tips. link here
  3. John, B. (2019, November 19). Kitten food vs. adult cat food: What are the differences? IdleCat. https://theidlecat.com/kitten-food-differences/
  4. Association of American Feed Control Officials. (2014). AAFCO methods for substantiating nutritional adequacy of dog and cat foods: Proposed revisions edited per comments for 2014 official publication. PDF
  5. Syufy, F. (2019, November 4). How to choose the best kitten food. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/choosing-best-kitten-food-552267
  6. US Food and Drug Administration. (2020, February 28). “Complete and balanced” pet food. link here
  7. Chewy Pet Central. (2019, November 13). Cat food for all ages: How (and what) to feed your cat during every stage of life. https://petcentral.chewy.com/ages-stages-cat-food/
  8. Chewy Pet Central. (2019, December 10). The best senior cat food: A guide to feeding your older cat. https://petcentral.chewy.com/best-senior-cat-food/
  9. Freeman, L.M., Linder, D.E., and Heinze, C.R. (2016, March 8). When should I switch my pet to a senior diet? Tufts Clinical Nutrition Service. https://vetnutrition.tufts.edu/2016/03/when-should-i-switch-my-pet-to-a-senior-diet/
  10. Pittari, J., et al. (2009). American Association of Feline Practitioners: Senior care guidelines. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 11(9), 763-778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfms.2009.07.011
  11. PetCoach. (n.d.). Do senior cats have different nutritional needs? https://www.petcoach.co/article/nutritional-needs-of-senior-cats/
  12. Coates, J. (2014, April 25). Are life stage dog foods credible? PetMD. https://www.petmd.com/blogs/nutritionnuggets/dr-coates/2014/april/debate-over-all-life-stage-dog-foods-31604
  13. Rock Veterinary Clinic. (n.d.). Understanding pet food labels. https://www.rockvetclinic.org/post/understanding-pet-food-labels.html

Published July 26th, 2020

Updated November 1st, 2020

Behavior

Why do cats knead?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

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This behavior goes by many names: kneading, making biscuits, making cookies, paddling, or smurgling. Most people know what kneading is, but allow me to overexplain so we’re all on the same page. Kneading is when a cat snuggles up on or next to a beloved human (or object, or other animal) and begins massaging the target of their affection with alternating forepaws. They may also begin to purr, salivate, or suckle on fabric or other available material, depending on the cat. That suckling habit is sometimes called wool-chewing or wool-sucking. Some people find kneading to be super cute while others find it annoying. It can certainly be unpleasant if your cat decides to make biscuits on your bare legs. But whatever your opinions on being kneaded, you’ve probably wondered, “why does my cat do this?”

Ginger and white kitten suckling
Image by Antonios Ntoumas from Pixabay

As is so often the case with feline behavior, the reason for kneading is not known for certain. The most well-known theory is that it is a carry-over from kittenhood. Kittens begin to knead almost immediately. They place their paws on their mother’s abdomen as they suckle and knead her to stimulate the flow of milk. Kneading is believed to release endorphins to encourage bonding between kittens and mother. That neurological process, as well as the comforting memories, remain into adulthood. Cats may knead their favorite human in a similar bonding process, a show of affection and contentment. They may also knead to soothe themselves if they feel anxious, trying to take themselves back to a happier state of mind.

Taking our cats even further back in time, we can find a reason for kneading in the evolution of their wild ancestors. Domestic cats will often knead beds, blankets, pillows, etc. before settling down on them to sleep. It’s thought that ancestral wild cats kneaded down grass or other vegetation in the same manner to make a soft place to sleep or give birth. In the arid environments where they lived, soft sleeping spots could be scarce unless you made one yourself.

Another possibility is that kneading, at least in adult cats, has to do with those special little kitty paws. There are scent glands on cats’ paws, so whenever they knead something, they mark it with their scent. Maybe your cat just wants everyone to know that this blanket is theirs, and that pillow, and their bed, and your bed…

There may not be only one reason why cats knead. They are complex and mysterious creatures, after all. What does seem clear is that when a cat kneads their owner, it can be taken as a compliment. It’s also certain that kneading is a hard-wired and instinctive behavior. If you don’t like being kneaded, you cannot stop your cat from kneading entirely, but you may be able to stop them from kneading you, or at least make the process easier on yourself.

Cat behaviourist Jackson Galaxy explains smurgling

If your cat kneads with their claws out, there are two simple solutions. One is to keep their claws trimmed, which will protect both you and anything else they knead. Or, put a blanket or towel over your lap whenever they want to snuggle so they don’t sink their claws into you. If you just do not want them kneading you at all, you can try distracting them by petting them or giving them a toy. You can gently pick them up and move them whenever they start to knead on you. Picking a designated blanket, pillow, or cat bed to move them to can teach them to make their biscuits there. The most important thing is to NOT PUNISH a cat for kneading. They will not understand.

I often feel that I don’t deserve the little goddess that is my cat. But when she cuddles up to me and starts purring and paddling those paws, I know that she loves me despite the fact that I am a mere human bumbling about in her apartment. Maybe she does value me for something other than slinging food in her bowl.

Published January 23, 2020

Updated June 1, 2021