Breed Profiles

Russian Blue: Green-eyed Arctic Angels

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Meredith Hemphill

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Russian Blue cat face
Photo by Robert W. from Pixabay

The Russian Blue is a very aptly-named cat. They likely originated in Russia, and they are blue. Well, “blue” in the cat fancy sense. Blue is the dilute form of black, caused by a mutation that lightens the cat’s fur. It appears gray or blue-gray. Russian Blues are strikingly beautiful cats, but they’re not just a pretty face. This breed has had to fight for survival from the very beginning.

History

The Russian Blue was a naturally-occurring cat breed that arose in the arctic climes of the Arkhangelsk Isles of Northern Russia [2-4, 7, 8]. At least, that’s the prevailing theory. The breed is old, maybe over 400 years old [1]. Its origins haven’t been pinned down for certain. It is said that there are still wild-living blue cats in the area today, giving credence to the idea [6, 9]. Additionally, the Russian Blue’s thick pelt is thought to be an adaptation to the long and severely cold winters they faced in their native environment [2, 4, 9, 10]. Legend has it that they were hunted in the wilderness for those luxurious, seal-like pelts [6, 7, 10]. We can only hope that it’s just a tall tale.

Merchant ships from the port of Arkhangelsk probably brought the cats to Britain [6, 5, 9-11]. The first of these blue Russian cats was shown at the 1875 Crystal Palace Cat Show in London [4, 8, 9, 11]. Arkhangelsk means “archangel” in English, so it was named the Archangel Cat [6, 10]. At first, the Archangel Cat/Russian Blue was not a cat fancier favorite. At early cat shows, it was categorized with all the other blue cats [1, 4, 6, 9-11]. British judges preferred the look of the British Blue, now blue British Shorthair, so Russian Blues rarely took home prizes [6, 9, 10]. The breed began to come into its own when the GCCF gave the breed a separate classification in 1912 [1, 4, 6, 8-11]. They were first exported to the United States around the same time [1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 11].

Like many pedigreed cat breeds, the Russian Blue nearly went extinct during World War II [5, 6, 9, 10]. After the war, two different versions of the Russian Blue emerged in Europe. In England, Russian Blues that survived the war were bred with British Blues and blue-point Siamese [6, 10]. Scandinavian breeders bred blue cats from Finland with blue-point Siamese to resurrect the breed [6, 10]. North American breeders finally achieved cats everyone could agree on by crossing the two bloodlines [4, 6, 7, 10, 11]. The Russian Blue has increased in popularity since the 1960s and is now a favored pet and show cat breed [2, 4, 7, 8, 10].

Russian Blue cat in red bow tie
Photo by VS_star from Pixabay

Breed Characteristics

Appearance

A Russian Blue’s coat is one of its distinguishing features. As expected, their fur is usually blue, although in Australia and New Zealand the breed standard allows for black and white as well [1, 11]. The blue coloration has a silvery cast due to silver tips on each guard hair [2, 4, 7, 9, 10]. They are solid-colored, but kittens may sometimes have faint tabby markings called “ghost stripes” that fade with age [7, 11]. They have a double coat with a soft, silky texture. It’s so plush, you can draw in it with your finger [7, 10]! In addition to their shimmery, luxurious pelts, Russian Blues are known for their striking green eyes. Kittens’ eyes turn yellow first, then begin to form a green ring around four months of age [2, 10]. By adulthood, their eyes will be green [1, 2, 10].

Russian Blues are medium-sized cats with wedge-shaped heads and long, tapering tails. They are fine-boned and muscular but look stockier due to the thickness of their coats. Their ears are large and set far apart. Their noses and paw pads are blue like the rest of them. Perhaps their cutest feature is their upturned mouths which give them the appearance of a perpetual smile [3, 8-10].

Personality

Russian Blues are a bit introverted. They bond strongly with their people, especially their favorite person, and are very affection and playful. They tend to be shy and nervous with strangers, however, and are likely to hide from them. Russian Blues also don’t mind being alone for long stretches of time if need be. These cats are good at entertaining themselves. They would prefer to play with you, though! Fetch is a favorite game. They’re sensitive to emotions and often react to cheer up or comfort their people. Russian Blues require a little sensitivity in return, though. They are easily startled, so be nice to the scaredy-cat.

With all that Siamese in their ancestry, it should come as no surprise that Russian Blues can be talkers. Oddly enough, though, they talk very quietly, most unlike Siamese. The more they are talked to, the more likely they are to engage in conversation [3, 8, 11].

Cats are known for not liking change and messes, but Russian Blues are extremely displeased by those things. They are naturally cautious, so changes in routine, even small ones, really upset their apple cart. They tend to be very food-motivated, making that especially true of changes to mealtime. And they infamously do not like a messy litterbox. Can you blame them?

Living with an Archangel

Russian Blues are pretty low-maintenance. They require very little grooming. An occasional brushing will do to get the dead hair out of their coat. They are keen hunters, so they need plenty of toys to keep them busy. Because they are independent cats and they usually get along well with children and other pets, so they can be a good option for busy families. It’s important for any children to know that kitty gets scared easily, however.

A Russian Blue needs a predictable schedule. Any changes must be implemented slowly. They also need to have their litterbox cleaned frequently or they might refuse to use it. Russian Blues are also known to be overeaters, if they have the chance, so free-feeding really isn’t an option with this breed. Don’t let them talk you into feeding them scraps or a bunch of treats, either. That precious face can be very convincing if you aren’t careful. Let children and guests know not to give in, either.

Are Russian Blues Hypoallergenic?

There’s no such thing as a cat that straight up does not cause allergies. There are a handful of cat breeds that are considered hypoallergenic because they tend to cause less allergies, however. The Russian Blue is one of them. They produce less of the Fel D1 protein, one of the substances in cats’ skin which causes allergies in some people [2, 3, 8]. They also don’t shed very much [2, 8]. Although cat dander, not cat hair, is the primary cause of allergies, floating cat hair can spread the dander around. That being said, if you are looking for a hypoallergenic cat, don’t rush out and buy a Russian Blue just yet. Allergies are highly variable. A person with cat allergies should spend some time with Russian Blues first to see if they can tolerate the breed before deciding to get one.

Health Concerns

Perhaps due to its start as a natural breed, the Russian Blue is a very healthy pedigreed cat. The biggest risk is obesity, due to this breed’s propensity to overeat [2, 10]. Other than that, they may have an elevated risk of bladder stones [11]. They have some risk of progressive retinal atrophy, a degenerative eye disease, and polycystic kidney disease as well [2]. They really carry very little breed-associated health risk. That’s not to say they can’t get sick like any other cat, of course, so always keep up with your cat’s regular veterinary check-ups.

Fun Facts

  • The Russian Blue has also been shown under the names Archangel Blue, Maltese, Spanish Blue, and Foreign Blue. [1, 5, 6, 11]
  • Folklore holds that Russians Blues have healing powers or are omens of good luck. [2, 7, 11]
  • Legend has it that Russian Blues were favorite pets of the Russian Czars once upon a time. [2-4, 6-8, 11]
  • Nyan Cat was inspired by artist Chris Torres’s Russian Blue, Marty. [6]
Nyan Cat!

Works Cited

  1. Alderton, D. (1992). Cats: The visual guide to more than 250 types of cats from around the world. Dorling Kindersley Limited: London.
  2. Braaksma, H. (n.d.). Russian Blue. Daily Paws. https://www.dailypaws.com/cats-kittens/cat-breeds/russian-blue
  3. Brown, J. (2020, January 2). Russian Blue cat: Cat breed profile. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/russian-blue-cat-4580390
  4. Cat Fanciers’ Association. (n.d.). About the Russian Blue. CFA.org. https://cfa.org/russian-blue/
  5. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  6. Fawcett, K. (2016, September 2). 8 elegant facts about Russian Blue cats. Mental Floss. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/85227/8-elegant-facts-about-russian-blue-cats
  7. Johnson, P. (2001, June). The Russian Blue. The Cat Fancier’s Almanac. Retrieved from https://cfa.org/russian-blue/russian-blue-article-2001/
  8. Pet Care Center. (n.d.). Russian Blue cat information and personality traits. Hill’s Pet. https://www.hillspet.com/cat-care/cat-breeds/russian-blue
  9. Petfinder. (n.d.). Russian Blue. https://www.petfinder.com/cat-breeds/russian-blue/
  10. Russian Blue. (2016, July 1). PetMD. https://www.petmd.com/cat/breeds/c_ct_russian_blue
  11. Russian Blue/Nebelung. (n.d.). VetStreet. http://www.vetstreet.com/cats/russian-blue-nebelung#overview

Published May 9th, 2021

Updated June 14th, 2023

Science

Hyperthyroidism

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Thyroid disease is fairly common in cats, especially as they get on in years. The most frequent type of thyroid disease in older cats is hyperthyroidism [1, 4]. My parents’ elderly cat, Rosie, has it. So did my roommate’s cat Coco. And so do my best friend’s two ancient gray ladies. Even though hyperthyroidism is a common illness, I will attest that it can still be mystifying at times. It can impact a cat’s entire body, and it isn’t completely understood even by scientists and veterinarians. It is diagnosable and treatable, however. Sometimes, hyperthyroidism can even be cured.

Graphic of cat thyroid gland
The thyroid gland – Image from Cornell Feline Health Center

What is Hyperthyroidism?

The thyroid gland is a small organ found in all vertebrates which produces the thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) hormones. In mammals, the thyroid is found in the throat and has two lobes. Thyroid hormones regulate a wide variety of bodily functions. When the thyroid produces too much T3 and T4, it’s called hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism increases the body’s metabolism which can cause problems with many different organs and systems.

Cats typically develop hyperthyroidism when middle-aged or older [1, 2, 7, 8, 10]. Up to 10% of cats age 10 and older may have hyperthyroidism [1, 3, 8]. It’s uncommon in cats younger than that, however [1, 2, 7, 8]. Untreated hyperthyroidism is fatal, but today the prognosis for a cat with this disease is usually optimistic.

How is Hyperthyroidism Diagnosed?

If your veterinarian suspects hyperthyroidism, they will probably do a physical examination of your cat’s neck to see if they can feel that the thyroid is enlarged [1, 2, 4, 7]. The presence or absence of a suspicious lump isn’t enough for a diagnosis, however. Most of the time, the final diagnosis can be made with a total thyroxine, or TT4, blood serum test [10]. The vast majority of hyperthyroid cats will have very high T4 levels with a TT4 test, making the diagnosis clear right away [1, 2, 7, 10].

However, cats with hypothyroidism occasionally have T4 serum levels that fall within normal limits [1, 2, 7, 10]. T4 levels fluctuate, so your veterinarian may decide to try the test again in a few weeks [1, 7]. Or they might try other thyroid hormone blood tests. A thyroid scan is another option but must be performed at a specialty veterinary facility [7, 10].

What are the Symptoms?

Because thyroid hormones affect so many parts of the body, the symptoms of hyperthyroidism are varied and sometimes nonspecific. They include:

Graphic of cat with hyperthyroidism
Characteristic appearance of hyperthyroid cat – Image from Cornell Feline Health Center
  • Weight loss/muscle wasting
  • Increased appetite
  • Increased thirst and urination
  • Vomiting
  • Diarrhea
  • Hyperactivity
  • Unkempt fur
  • Aggression or irritability
  • Fast heartrate
  • Increased vocalization, especially at night
  • Weakness
  • Heat intolerance

Some cats demonstrate “apathetic hyperthyroidism,” where they are lethargic, anorexic, and depressed/dull instead of the more usual symptoms [1]. Hyperthyroidism is progressive, so symptoms may be very mild at first [2]. It’s also not uncommon for hyperthyroid cats to also have other diseases, especially since they tend to be older. Many of these symptoms can be symptoms of something else. The safest bet is to consult your veterinarian anytime your cat seems different or unwell.

Secondary Illnesses

An overactive thyroid can sometimes cause other organs to become diseased. The heart is particularly at risk. There is a form of heart disease known as thyrotoxic cardiomyopathy which is caused by the heart muscle working overtime to meet the demands of a metabolism on overdrive [10]. The heart muscle thickens as a result of pumping so hard, but then that makes it difficult for the heart to work properly [2, 4, 10]. This can lead to heart failure. Fortunately, successful treatment of the hyperthyroidism can improve and even reverse the cardiomyopathy [2, 7, 10].

Hyperthyroid cats frequently experience high blood pressure as a cardiac complication, too [2, 4, 10]. About 25% of the time, in fact [10]. In severe cases, the high blood pressure can damage their organs [2, 4, 10]. It can even lead to retinal detachment that renders them permanently blind [4, 10]. High blood pressure is no joke and needs to be managed alongside hyperthyroidism until the thyroid hormones are under control [2]. If the hyperthyroidism is resolved, the blood pressure usually takes care of itself [2, 10].

What Causes Hyperthyroidism?

Hyperthyroidism usually begins when the thyroid gland becomes enlarged [2, 10]. In cats, this is almost always the result of a benign tumor called an adenoma [2, 4]. In less than 2% of cases, the growth is cancerous [1, 10]. What causes the abnormal thyroid tissue growth to begin with, however, remains uncertain. Researchers have found evidence for both environmental and biological factors that may play a role.

Environment

There is a demonstrated association between diet and the chances of a cat developing hyperthyroidism. Too much iodine in the diet may make a cat susceptible [10]. Canned cat food is also associated with higher rates of hyperthyroidism [1, 5]. The results of a 1999 study suggest cats fed primarily canned food have a rate of hyperthyroidism 2 to 3 times higher than other cats [5]. Researchers still don’t know why canned food would lead to an overactive thyroid. Correlation is not causation, so there may be more going on here that we don’t understand yet.

Using cat litter has also been found to be a potential risk factor, with the same study showing triple the rate of hyperthyroidism in cats that use litter [5]. Again, although there is a potential link, there is as yet no explanation. From looking through a lot of research papers to write this article, I know that veterinary scientists are still hard at work trying to figure out feline hyperthyroidism. The disease just doesn’t want to give up its secrets easily.

Certain household chemicals are associated with higher rates of feline hyperthyroidism, too. Polybrominated diphenyl esters (PBDE), which are used as flame retardants, have been found in high levels in the blood serum of hyperthyroid cats [1]. According to the Environmental Protection Agency factsheet for PBDE, rodent studies have shown thyroid toxicity from PBDE exposure. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a versatile group of artificial chemicals with a wide variety of applications in industry and the home. Wang et al. found that PFAS levels, particularly perfluorooctanoic acid, were higher in hyperthyroid cats than the cats in the control group [9]. The Environmental Protection Agency lists tumor growth and thyroid hormone disruption among the effects of PFAS in animals.

Siamese cat in meadow
Siamese have a reduced rate of hyperthyroidism – Image by rihaij from Pixabay

Biology

Hyperthyroid cats may have defects in the way their cells communicate that lead to the adenomas and other tissue abnormalities that overproduce thyroid hormones. Cats with thyroid nodules sometimes have low levels of the G protein in their thyroids [1]. A lack of G protein can decrease the inhibition of cell growth [1]. Some cats with thyroid nodules or adenomas have a cancer-causing mutation, known as an oncogene, which could cause the excessive cell growth [1].

Certain breeds of cat are less likely to develop the disease: Siamese, Burmese, Tonkinese, Himalayan, Persian, Abyssinian, and British Shorthair [3, 5, 9, 10]. At one time, only the Siamese, Burmese, and Persian/Himalayan were known to have these decreased risk, so the benefit was thought to be associated with the color-point pattern or lighter coat colors [3]. This hypothesis ultimately didn’t hold up [3], but perhaps there is something special these breeds have in common which will one day come to light. The same study which discovered the three new resistant breeds also found that long-haired, nonpedigree cats have higher rates of hyperthyroidism [3]. This despite the extremely long-haired Persian and Himalayan’s decreased rate.

What Treatments are Available?

Radioactive Iodine

It might sound a little scary, but radioactive iodine is actually the gold standard for treating feline hyperthyroidism. This treatment can only be done in specialized veterinary clinics that are authorized to work with radioactive materials, so it may not be accessible or affordable for everyone [2, 7, 10]. It’s a great option if you can take it, though, because for about 95% of cats it cures their hyperthyroidism–even those few with cancerous thyroid tumors [1, 2].

Radioactive iodine therapy relies on the fact that the thyroid takes up iodine to synthesize thyroid hormones. The cat is injected with the radioactive version of iodine, I-131 [1, 2, 7, 10]. No anesthesia is required [2, 7, 10]. The cat’s thyroid absorbs the I-131, just like it would normal iodine, but the abnormal thyroid tissue that’s churning out T3 and T4 like crazy is hogging the iodine. So the radioactive molecules get sucked into the abnormal tissue and kill it, leaving alone the cat’s healthy tissues, including any healthy thyroid tissue [1, 2, 7, 10].

Although the procedure is quite safe for the cat, it can be dangerous for the people around the cat which is now shedding radioactive particles [2]. Cats have to be hospitalized for a week or two after radioactive iodine therapy so that their radiation levels can get low enough for release [1, 2, 7, 10]. Even then, special care has to be taken at home for a two weeks after [1].

Radioactive iodine therapy may be a good option for cats that cannot undergo anesthesia. It also works well for cats with ectopic thyroid [7]. Ectopic thyroid is thyroid tissue somewhere other than the usual location of the thyroid gland such as under the tongue or in the chest [10]. It can be in locations that would be difficult to remove surgically. Radioactive iodine therapy doesn’t usually have complications, but for the rare cat it works too well and they become hypothyroid instead [2]. The solution to this is medication with thyroid hormones.

Medication

Hyperthyroidism cannot be cured with medication, but it can be managed with it. The medicine is called methimazole [1, 4, 7, 10]. Its brand names are Felimazole and Tapazole [4, 7, 10]. Methimazole is available as an oral tablet or a gel applied to the skin [1, 2]. It works by decreasing the production and release of hormones from the thyroid [2, 4]. It’s usually given twice a day [1, 4].

Cats may be given methimazole as a long-term method of managing their disease or to stabilize them before trying a more permanent solution [1, 4, 7]. Like all drugs, methimazole can have side effects. According to the Food and Drug Administration, the most common side effects of methimazole in cats are changes in appetite, lethargy, vomiting, diarrhea, skin lesions, itchiness, unusual vocalizations, weight loss, fur abnormalities, weakness, and agitation [4]. However, a small percentage of cats develop severe side effects with methimazole [1, 4]. Namely, liver disease, anemia, low blood platelets, and low white blood cell counts [1, 4, 7, 10]. Always report medication side effects, even seemingly small ones, to your veterinarian.

Two veterinarians holding white cat
Photo by Gustavo Fring from Pexels

Surgery

When Dr. Jean Holzworth first recognized feline hyperthyroidism in 1978, the only way to treat it was to remove the offending thyroid gland [1]. Although there are now other options, for some cats this is still the chosen course of treatment. For most cats, surgery cures their hyperthyroidism [2]. It can also be done at a regular veterinary surgery rather than the special facility required for radioactive iodine therapy, making it accessible to more people. Surgery requires a cat to go under anesthesia, however, and for older cats who often have other health problems, that can be a risky proposition [2, 10].

Surgery also carries a chance of complications. Complications aren’t likely, but they do happen. Most cats still have enough thyroid cells left after the surgery to keep up their T3 and T4 hormone levels, but some become hypothyroid and require medication [7]. Another possible complication is damage to the parathyroid glands, which are near or within the thyroid are necessary for maintaining normal calcium levels in the blood [2, 7]. If the parathyroid glands become damaged, the cat may develop low blood calcium and require supplemental calcium or vitamin D [1, 7]. Other complications include damage to nearby nerves or the larynx [1, 7].

Due to the risks associated with surgery and the availability of alternatives, it isn’t a very common choice anymore [2]. That being said, it might still be the right option for you and your cat. That’s something you would have to figure out with your veterinarian.

Diet

The research is still ongoing for diet as a means of controlling hyperthyroidism in cats [2]. For cats with health concerns that make other treatment options difficult or impossible, however, it can be the best–or only–choice despite being somewhat controversial. The principle is that limiting the amount of iodine in the cat’s diet to a small, controlled amount restricts the amount of hormones the thyroid can make. Cats fed a prescription iodine-restricted diet and nothing else should return to normal thyroid function [1, 7, 10]. Nothing else really means NOTHING else. No treats, don’t even put the prescription food in a bowl that has been used for other food or untreated water [1, 10]. The iodine-restricted diet contains only 0.2 parts per million of iodine [10]. That is a really, really small amount. It would not take much to throw off the balance.

In memory of Coco and Rosenberg

Works Cited

  1. Brewer, W. G., Jr. (2020, July 6). Treating feline hyperthyroidism. Blue Pearl. https://bluepearlvet.com/medical-library-for-dvms/treating-feline-hyperthyroidism/
  2. Cornell Feline Health Center. (2017, January). Hyperthyroidism in cats. Cornell University Collège of Veterinary Medicine. https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/cornell-feline-health-center/health-information/feline-health-topics/hyperthyroidism-cats
  3. Crossley, V. J., Debnath, A., Chang, Y. M., Fowkes, R. C., et al. (2017). Breed, coat color, and hair length as risk factors for hyperthyroidism in cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31(4), 1028-1034. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14737
  4. Food and Drug Administration. (2019, December 3). Hyperthyroidism in cats: There’s an FDA-approved drug to treat it. FDA.gov. https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/hyperthyroidism-cats-theres-fda-approved-drug-treat-it
  5. Kass, P. H., Peterson, M. E., Levy, J., James, K., et al. (1999). Evaluation of environmental, nutritional, and host factors in cats with hyperthyroidism. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 13(4), 323-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-1676.1999.tb02189.x
  6. Peterson, M. E., Castellano, C. A., and Rishniw, M. (2016). Evaluation of body weight, body condition, and muscle condition in cats with hyperthyroidism. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30(6), 1780-1789. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.14591
  7. Pet Health Topics. (n.d.). Hyperthyroidism in cats. Washington State University College of Veterinary Medicine. https://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/outreach/Pet-Health-Topics/categories/diseases/hyperthyroidism-in-cats
  8. Stephens, M. J., O’Neill, D. G., Church, D. B., McGreevy, P. D., et al. (2014). Feline hyperthyroidism reported in primary-care veterinary practices in England: Prevalence, associated factors and spatial distribution. Veterinary Record, 175(18), 458. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.102431
  9. Wang, M., Guo, W., Gardner, S., Petreas, M., et al. (2018). Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in Northern California cats: Temporal comparison and a possible link to cat hyperthyroidism. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 37(10), 2523-2529. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.4239
  10. Williams, K., Downing, R., and Ward, E. (n.d.). Hyperthyroidism in cats. VCA Hospitals. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/hyperthyroidism-in-cats

Published April 25th, 2021

Updated June 14th, 2023

Culture

Werecats, Part V: The Wampus Cat

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

At long last, we have reached the end of our series on werecats. We are rounding out the line-up with werepumas, which really only take one form: the wampus cat. It might be a bit of a stretch the call wampus cats a type of werecat, but they do have many of the common characteristics. Plus, these creatures come from my own neck of the woods, so I didn’t want to leave them out. I now present to you the (sort-of) werecat of the American south.

What is a Wampus Cat?

Wampus: An imaginary creature who lives in the deep Cape Fear River swamps.

Paul Green’s Wordbook: An Alphabet of Reminiscence, 1990
Map of Appalachian Mountains
Appalachian Mountains – Appalachian Regional Commission via Wikimedia Commons

Descriptions of the wampus cat vary depending upon the location, and it has a pretty large home range. Wampus cat folklore is concentrated throughout the southern Appalachian Mountains, from Virginia to Mississippi (2, 7). The stories even crop up to the west in Missouri and Arkansas (8). Wampus cats are usually said to be part-human, part-cougar (1-3, 5, 7) but are sometimes a canine-feline hybrid instead (2, 8). Others describe them as huge, black panthers with demonic, glowing eyes (5). Typical traits include walking on two legs instead of four, luminescent yellow eyes, and a bone-chilling howl or scream (1, 2, 8).

How dangerous wampus cats are depends upon who you ask, as well. In some legends, the wampus cat can be destructive but doesn’t pose a danger to human lives. She may disturb or damage items left outside and kill or steal livestock, and she makes scary noises in the woods at night (6). Sometimes the wampus cat is said to drive people insane (8) or to portend death with its haunting cries (7).

There are those who swear wampus cats are much more dangerous than that, however, and will absolutely attack humans with intent to kill (1, 5). Yet according to a Cherokee version of the legend, the wampus cat is actually a protector of the land and its people (2, 8). The tale of the wampus cat may have originated with the Cherokee (7), although it’s hard to say for sure because the provenance of the lore has become quite muddied.

Murky Origins

Cherokee Curse

This seems to be the most common origin story for the wampus cat. It’s also the one that I remember reading in a book of spooky stories as a teenager. It begins with a beautiful Cherokee woman who wants to know what the men get up to on their hunts, which women are forbidden from participating in (1-3, 6, 7). In some versions of the tale, she is jealous, believing that her husband may be engaging in infidelity while he’s away from her (1). In others she wants to learn the magic rites that the men perform on these trips (6).

Whatever her reasons, she covered herself in a puma skin as a disguise and snuck after the men the next time they went hunting (1-3, 6, 7). They caught her spying on them, and the shaman put a curse on her as punishment (1-3, 6, 7). The woman and the cougar pelt became one, and she was turned into a half-human, half-cougar, doomed to wander the forests forever away from human companionship (1-3, 6, 7).

Although this story is about the Cherokee, it probably was not their story (6). In fact, the Cherokee have a different myth about the cat creature, which I will get to next. It’s thought that the first stories of the wampus cat–under a different name–were shared among Native Americans, especially the Cherokee, and later relayed to white settlers (2). Then, perhaps because of cultural differences or just the Telephone Game that happens with folklore, the European newcomers began to tell the story differently.

Cherokee Hero

The Cherokee legend also casts a woman in the starring role, but in a much different light. Once upon a time, a Cherokee village was under siege by a demon: Ew’ah, the Spirit of Madness (2, 8). Ew’ah ate dreams and could drive people insane with a single glance (8). The Cherokee’s strongest warrior, Standing Bear (or sometimes Great Fellow), was chosen to go out and kill the demon (8). When he finally returned weeks later, he was completely insane (2, 8).

Close-up of mountain lion
Photo by Jake Heckey from Pixabay

Standing Bear’s wife, Running Deer, was heartbroken–and determined to get revenge (8). The shamans gave Running Deer a wild cat mask and a magical black paste that would hide her scent and her body (8). They told her that she must surprise the demon, or she would fare no better than her husband (8).

So Running Deer tracked Ew’ah through the forest and managed to sneak up behind it as it was drinking from a spring (8). Running Deer sprang upon Ew’ah, taking it by surprise just as she’d planned (2, 8). The spirit of the mountain cat in the mask banished the demon, and Running Deer ran home without looking back (8). The shamans and warchiefs named Running Deer “Spirit-Talker” and “Home-Protector” in honor of her courageous act (8). They say that she is still protecting her home now in the form of the wampus cat (2, 8).

Witchy Werecat

On the flip side, there is a common wampus cat tale that has European colonists written all over it. Where there are women and cats, there must be witches, right? The story claims that an Appalachian village was being terrorized by a spate of mysterious livestock thefts (3). They believed a witch was the culprit, and they had a particular woman in mind (3). Some of the townspeople followed her from her home to a farm late one night (3).

They watched as she transformed into a house cat and sneaked into the farmhouse (3). She put a sleeping spell on the family, slunk back outside, and entered the barn (3). There, she began to transform back into a human (3). The townspeople interrupted her, however, preventing her from finishing the spell (1, 3). She was able to escape capture, but was stuck halfway between a human and a cat thereafter (1, 3).

The Government Did It

This one is my favorite because it’s just so wild. There is an urban legend version of the wampus cat specific to Alabama which has it that wampus cats were created by a secret government program (2). The story goes that this World War II-era program aimed to create a fast, courageous animal that could be used as messengers in warzones (2). In a remote place in Alabama, government scientists made a creature that was part mountain lion, part gray wolf (2). How that was allegedly accomplished in the 1940s when it wouldn’t even be possible today, is anyone’s guess. According to legend, some of these hypothetical animals escaped the facility and established themselves in the environment (2). As someone with a degree in genetics, I firmly assert that this make no sense. But what a story!

Wampus Cats in Media

Statue of wampus cat
Conway High School’s six-legged wampus cat mascot – Photo by Lord Belbury via Wikimedia Commons

Wampus cats are not an especially common supernatural creature in popular culture, but that doesn’t mean they never rear their furry heads. Cormac McCarthy incorporated them in his debut novel, The Orchard Keeper (7). McCarthy’s character Uncle Arthur is plagued by dreams of wampus cats which he fears will enter his bedchamber and “suck his meager breath” (7).

In The Island of Dr. Moreau, H. G. Wells paints a truly horrifying picture of the depravity of humankind in the service of science. Wells uses an unusual word for the wampus cat, “virago,” in a scene with Dr. Moreau’s surgically-built puma woman (7). The narrator notes dispassionately that the creature’s shrieks under the torture of Dr. Moreau’s knife sound “almost exactly like that of an angry virago” (7). The puma woman immediately escapes and succeeds at exacting her revenge on her tormentor, although she loses her life as well (7).

  • J. K. Rowling made Wampus Cat one of the houses in Ilvermorny School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
  • There was a string ensemble in the late 1930s called The Wampus Cats.
  • Strangeways Brewing makes a Wampus Cat Triple IPA.
  • Great American Craft Spirits makes a Wampus Cat Single Malt Whiskey.
  • Cry of the Wampus Cat by Joel Eden is a crime thriller that uses the Cherokee curse wampus cat mythology and pits two detectives against a series of murders that may have been committed by a wampus cat.
  • Several schools use the wampus cat as their mascot, including Conway High School, which depicts is as a blue-and-white mountain lion with six legs. Your guess is as good as mine.

Is the Wampus Cat Just a Cat?

With all those possible origin stories for the wampus cat, there is another we have yet to examine. Is the wampus cat just a case of mistaken identity? Most of the descriptions sound a lot like a real puma, except sometimes on two legs instead of four, which cats can’t do for very long. Puma eyes can glow at night, a phenomenon known as eyeshine. It is caused by the reflective layer at the back of their eyes which helps felines see in low light. As for the unearthly wails of the wampus cat? If you’ve never heard a mountain lion scream, I’ve included a video below. The sound is often compared to a woman screaming in fear or pain.

There are two problems with this hypothesis, however. The first is that the legend of the wampus cat likely began with the local Native Americans. They shared the forests with cougars and would have known very well what they look and sound like. Widespread misidentification seems highly improbable. The second is that cougars have been extinct in the east (except Florida) for almost 100 years. At least, that’s the official line.

There’s no one, simple answer to the first quandary, but there might be to the second. Although Fish and Wildlife Services maintain that the Eastern Cougar is extinct, people sure seem to see a lot of them for that to be the case (5). They also continue to see wampus cats and to blame them for attacking livestock (2). If people don’t expect to see pumas it might be easier to conflate the two.

In 2017, Tennessee confirmed 10 mountain lion sightings after none in the last hundred years (5). As far as I know, that’s the closest the Eastern Cougar has come to official de-extinction. Why aren’t wildlife officials interested in cougar sightings? A North Carolina fish and game official, who wished to remain anonymous, told journalist Mike Conley that wildlife officials might be afraid admitting the Eastern Cougar is back in town could lead to hunters flocking to bag the cats (5). Not many people seem interested in taking home wampus cat trophies, however. Perhaps the wampus cat is a protector of the forest after all.

Trail cam footage of female mountain lion featuring “screaming” vocalizations and eyeshine

Works Cited

  1. Bahr, J., Taylor, T., Coleman, L., Moran, M., and Sceurman, M. (2007). Weird Virginia: Your travel guide to Virginia’s local legends and best kept secrets. Sterling Publishing Company: New York.
  2. Conley, M. (2013, August 1). Mike Conley’s tales of the weird: legend of the wampus cat. The McDowell News. https://mcdowellnews.com/opinion/mike-conley-s-tales-of-the-weird-legend-of-the/article_3891ddce-f53e-5659-8f26-e4274c9ebe91.html
  3. Farley, J. T. K. (2017, March 31). Have you ever heard of Appalachia’s wampus cat legend? Appalachian Magazine. http://appalachianmagazine.com/2017/03/31/have-you-ever-heard-of-appalachias-wampus-cat-legend/
  4. Green, P. (1990). Wampus. In R. H. Wynn (ed.), Paul Green’s wordbook: An alphabet of reminiscence (pp. 1183). Appalachian State University: Boone, NC.
  5. McDowell, I. (2017, July 26). Wampus cats, panthers, and cougars, oh my! Yes! Weekly. https://www.yesweekly.com/news/wampus-cats-panthers-and-cougars-oh-my/article_49f88d47-98a5-57f9-9459-a28a0bfc139c.html
  6. North Carolina Ghosts. (n.d.). The wampus cat. https://northcarolinaghosts.com/mountains/wampus-cat/
  7. Place, E. (2017, June 27). Big cats of the Southeast (part 3): The wampus cat and other anthropomorphic depictions. The History Bandits. https://thehistorybandits.com/2017/06/27/big-cats-of-the-southeast-part-3-the-wampus-cat-and-other-anthropomorphic-depictions/
  8. Tabler, D. (2017, October 13). The story of the wampus cat. Appalachian History. https://www.appalachianhistory.net/2017/10/story-of-wampus-cat.html

Published April 11th, 2021

Updated May 12th, 2023

Cat Care

How to Choose the Best Cat Litter

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Gray cat beside litterbox
Photo by Litter Robot on Unsplash

I was recently forced to switch brands of cat litter because the place I shop stopped carrying the one I had been using for most of Joon’s life. Upon searching for a suitable replacement, I was immediately confronted with the overwhelming variety of cat litter options available on the market today. What I thought would be, at most, a ten minute task took an hour-and-a-half as I fell down a rabbit hole of customer reviews and “best cat litters” rankings. No one deserves to suffer as I have suffered. Instead, I am putting together a handy guide to the types of cat litter and the factors about them that matter.

Material Matters

Before World War II, there was no such thing as cat litter. Most cats were outdoor or indoor-outdoor and didn’t have litterboxes at all (10). Increased urbanization had brought more cats inside as family pets, however, creating a need for the litterbox. So people with indoor cats would fill boxes with sand or ashes and keep them somewhere out-of-the-way (10). It was a solution, but not a great one. Sand and ash do nothing for absorption and little for odor control, and they track everywhere. They are horrible substances when it comes to tracking. My last apartment had a wood-burning fireplace. We never used it, yet the whole apartment was gray by the time we moved out thanks to my cat. But pre-war homeowners had nothing better to use. Those of us who live in the era of cat litter have a man named Edward Lowe to thank.

Ed was a former sailor whose father had a company that manufactured absorbent clay (10). This clay was used to clean up oil and grease spills in wartime factories (10) and civilian garages alike (5). Ed realized those same absorbent properties might work in litterboxes, and he was right (4, 5, 10). In 1947, he registered his invention under the name Kitty Litter (9). Granulated clay litters are still used today, but a lot of other materials have been added since Ed Lowe created the litter market. We’ll start with the old stand-by.

Clay

The original type of cat litter made from granulated clay is still an option. It’s usually the cheapest kind of litter (4, 5). It has good absorption but doesn’t clump, so the whole pan needs to be thrown out and refilled once it’s too soiled (4, 5). That usually takes about a week for a single cat (5, 10). Granulated clay tends to have good odor control (7). These days, many formulations include additives like carbon or plant extracts to boost the odor control properties (7). Granulated clay litter usually doesn’t track too bad (10), but it can be pretty dusty (4, 7).

In the 1980s, biochemist and cat person Thomas Nelson, on a quest for a better litter, discovered that bentonite clay forms clumps when wet (5,10). Now waste could simply be scooped out of the litterbox instead of the whole box being dumped all the time. Thus, clumping clay cat litter was born. Obviously the biggest advantage of clumping clay litter is the ease of clean-up (2-5, 7, 10). Those clumps also lend themselves to greener pet care. Since the box doesn’t need to be completely emptied as often as it does with granulated clay, clumping clay litter causes less waste and is better for the environment (5, 10). It also tends to be better for odor control (5, 10). Bentonite clay is still dusty, though (3, 4, 7). It’s also quite heavy (3, 4).

There are now lightweight formulas to mitigate that last issue (4, 9). These mix bentonite clay with less weighty mineral particles (4). There are also lightweight granulated clay litters that use a different, lighter-weight type of clay (4). These have much the same advantages and disadvantages as the heavier cat litters they are derived from. The bags or boxes are just easier to lift and transport.

Eco-Friendly

This is a new but fast-growing slice of the cat litter market. More people are trying to make earth-conscious decisions, and that includes their pets. Clay litter is not biodegradable (7). So, there has been a push for sustainably sourced cat litter that is. There are a lot of types of eco-friendly litter now, which is great, but we don’t want to be here all day. Instead, I’m just going to summarize them.

  • Wheat: Utilizes the starches and enzymes in wheat to clump and control odor. Low-dust and low-tracking. (4, 7)
  • Corn: Most common natural cat litter. Utilizes the starches and enzymes in corn to clump and control odor. Low-dust. Can be expensive. (4, 7)
  • Pine/wood: May be made from recycled lumber scraps for added eco-friendliness. Comes in pellet, granule, or crushed form. Wood scents aid odor control. Low-dust. Naturally absorbent but does not clump. (4, 7)
  • Paper: Recycled paper made into pellets or granules. Highly absorbent and essentially dust-free. Granule form clumps. Lacking on odor control. (4, 7)
  • Grass: Made from one of several types of grass. Good clumping and odor control. (4)
  • Coconut husk: Made from the outside part of coconuts. Clumps, but not tightly. Low-dust. Natural coconut scent aids odor control. Not the most widely available option. (7)
  • Walnut shells: Crushed walnut shells, makes for a dark brown litter. Good clumping and odor control. Low-dust and low-tracking. (4, 7)
Cat litter pellets
Some cat litter comes in pellets – Photo by Michal Zacharzewski from FreeImages

I’ve also heard of more niche eco-friendly cat litters made of hemp, peas, green tea, yuca, sugarcane, and even tofu. Some eco-friendly cat litter is compostable or even flushable, although personally I’m not sure flushing cat litter is a great idea (5, 10). Because cats will ingest small amounts of litter while grooming and come into skin contact with their litter, it is important to make sure any cat with allergies is not given an eco-friendly litter containing an ingredient(s) they are allergic to (3). Some of these cat litters contain a lot of different plant ingredients, so check carefully. It’s also important to note that these plant-based litters can attract insects if not stored properly (7).

Silica

Silica is perhaps the latest and greatest when it comes to cat litter. This type of cat litter is made of tiny silica gel crystals or beads (4, 5, 7, 10). Silica is a naturally-occurring mineral that happens to be highly-absorbent (7). These litters are the most expensive, but some say they’re worth the price (3-5, 7). Silica cat litter is famously dust-free and low-tracking (3-5). It has great odor-control (3, 4, 7). It’s so absorptive, it can, in theory, last up to a month for one cat before needing to be changed out (7). It doesn’t clump, though, so that does mean throwing the whole litterbox-full out at the end of the month, or sooner if you have multiple cats (5).

It is the diagnostic cat litters that have really put silica at the front of the pack lately, however. Diagnostic litter contains pH indicators that change color in response to urine (1, 9). By indicating the pH of a cat’s urine, diagnostic litter can be a powerful tool for monitoring kitty’s health (1, 9). Urinary tract infections, kidney disease, and diabetes are some of the diseases that can affect the pH of a cat’s urine (9). For cat’s that have chronic urinary complaints, diagnostic cat litter could be especially helpful (9).

It is important to keep in mind that nothing matters more when choosing a cat litter than what your cat thinks. If something about their litter distresses a cat, there’s a good chance they won’t use it. That said, some cats do not like the sharp, gritty texture of silica crystals under their paws (4, 5, 7).

Clumping or Non-Clumping?

Cats may not go out and buy their litter, but they will make the final decision on whether they use it or not. Their opinion is the most important. So what do they prefer? Certainly their waste would be unlikely to form neat little clumps out in the wild. But that is actually what they prefer. Maybe it’s because the clumping action instantly helps clean up the place. Whatever the reason, cats prefer clumping litter to non-clumping litter (1, 3, 5, 9).

Scented or Unscented?

Some cat litter is scented to cover up the smell of cat waste. Lavender seems to be a favorite, by my observation. This has never appealed to me, but I can see why it might. Who would want to smell cat urine when they could smell flowers? Well, cats disagree. Cats generally don’t like strong smells (1, 3, 7). Even if that scented litter doesn’t smell very strong to you, it might to your cat’s much more sensitive nose. Those scents can linger on your cat after they’ve left the litterbox, too, which they really won’t like (3). Of course, all cats are individuals, so some will tolerate scented litter, but it’s best to avoid it. The litterbox should be scooped/cleaned often enough that it doesn’t reek, anyway.

Cat behaviorist Jackson Galaxy gives his tips for a litterbox your cat will want to visit

Special Considerations

Kittens and Trainees

There are some things to keep in mind when deciding what to put in the litterbox of kittens, especially very young ones. Years ago, a magazine article sounded the alarm that clumping cat litter might be dangerous for kittens (10). The concern is that kittens may eat litter because they explore with their mouths, and the clumping litter would clog their intestines (2, 10). Veterinarians don’t see evidence that this is something that really happens much if ever (2, 10). Still, it may be a good idea to stick with non-clumping cat litter while young kittens are getting used to the litter box (2, 10).

When it comes to litterbox training, both kittens and adult cats that haven’t used the box before can benefit from special litter (1, 6). Cat attractant litters and litter additives are formulated to emit a scent that gets cats’ attention and draws them to the litterbox (1, 6). Kerrie McKeon, designated cat expert for the Greater NYC animal rescue Bideawee, swears by this stuff (1). When Bideawee rescued a large group of cats, none of which had ever used a litterbox, she filled their litterboxes with cat attractant litter (1). All of the cats learned how to use a litterbox without the need for medication (1).

Asthma and Respiratory Disease

For cats with asthma or other respiratory ailments, litter dust can be a big problem (1, 9). It’s right in their faces! “Imagine trying to use the bathroom in a dust storm,” explains feline training-and-behavior specialist Cathy Bosley (1). All that dust can be a serious respiratory irritant and cause or worsen an asthma attack (9). There’s probably no such thing as a truly dust-free litter. Still, the goal is minimal dust. Litter specifically meant for cats with respiratory ailments or paper-based litter can be good options (9).

Surgical Recovery

Cats that are recovering from surgery, even a routine spay/neuter, need special consideration. Their litter might not be the first thing to come to mind as part of their aftercare, but it can make a difference. Some types of litter can get stuck and build up on sutures, bandages, wounds, etc. (1, 9). Clumping litter is the primary culprit for this problem (1). Besides being gross, stuck litter can irritate sensitive tissue (1). I can only imagine what kind of infection risk it poses. Pelleted paper cat litter is the gold standard for surgical recovery because it does not stick (1, 9). Cats are not fans of sudden changes, though, so if you have the time before a scheduled surgery, it’s best to start switching litters beforehand.

Declawed Cats

Never, ever declaw a cat. Ever. But maybe you already have a declawed cat. My former roommate and I once adopted an abandoned cat and discovered that all four of his paws had been declawed, which is almost never done. So if you’ve already got a furry friend who is missing the ends of their digits, they may have some issues that other cats don’t. Litterbox trouble is a common one. Declawed cats have chronic foot pain, and the litterbox can make this worse (8). The act of digging can be difficult and/or painful (8). Also, the dust and particles of litter between their toes, as well as grooming it out later, can really hurt declawed cats (8). The right cat litter can alleviate the discomfort, however.

The key is to find the softest cat litter possible (8). Pelleted litter is usually a bad idea–it’s too hard and bumpy (8). Look for lightweight, fine-grained litter (8). Eco-friendly litters can be softest, depending upon what they’re made of and the texture, so maybe give them a try (8). My roommate used a wheat litter for the declawed rescue cat. He was equally happy with the grass litter in Joon’s boxes.

Works Cited

  1. Adelson, K. I. (2020, October 1). The best cat litter, according to vets. The Strategist. https://nymag.com/strategist/article/best-cat-litter.html
  2. CatHealth. (n.d.). Best litter for kittens: Is clumping litter safe? CatHealth.com. https://www.cathealth.com/cat-care/safety/2300-best-litter-for-kittens-is-clumping-litter-safe
  3. CatHealth. (n.d.). What is the best type of cat litter? CatHealth.com. https://www.cathealth.com/cat-care/accessories/2439-what-is-the-best-type-of-cat-litter
  4. Golon, C. (2014, August 5). The cat owner’s guide to kitty litter options. VetStreet. http://www.vetstreet.com/our-pet-experts/the-cat-owners-guide-to-kitty-litter-options
  5. Lee, J. A. (2008). Kitty litter: Does it really matter what type I buy? Pet Health Network. https://www.pethealthnetwork.com/cat-health/cat-behavior/kitty-litter-does-it-really-matter-what-type-i-buy
  6. Nicholas, J. (2021, March 21). Litter box 101: What type of litter is best for your cat. Preventive Vet. https://www.preventivevet.com/cats/what-type-of-litter-is-best-for-your-cat
  7. Petco. (n.d.). Choosing the best cat litter for your household. https://www.petco.com/content/petco/PetcoStore/en_US/pet-services/resource-center/new-pet/Choosing-the-Right-Cat-Litter.html
  8. PetMD Editorial. (2019, April 9). What’s the best litter for declawed cats? PetMD. https://www.petmd.com/cat/care/whats-best-litter-declawed-cats
  9. Robins, S. (2020, January 26). Finding the right litter. Catster. E-newsletter.
  10. Schultz, J. L. (2003). How to choose a cat litter. Petfinder. https://www.petfinder.com/cats/bringing-a-cat-home/choose-cat-litter/

Published March 28, 2021

Science

Feline Reproduction, Part II: Pregnancy and Kittens

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Mother tabby cat and kitten
Image by JackieLou DL from Pixabay

Happy Spring Equinox! Spring is the season of new life, and that includes new kittens. Two weeks ago, we looked at the reproductive cycles and mating behavior of cats. Now, we look at what naturally comes next. I’ll cover the stages of cat pregnancy, birth, and the basics of kitten development. Additionally, I will continue to debunk common myths about feline reproduction.

Cat Pregnancy

A she-cat carrying or raising kittens is called a queen. Queens are pregnant for approximately nine weeks (2, 5, 6, 9). About three weeks in, queens begin to show signs of pregnancy (9). This is also when it first becomes possible to confirm pregnancy because a veterinarian can then feel the kittens inside the abdomen (8, 9). An ultrasound will also do the trick (8). The symptoms of a cat pregnancy include:

  • Weight gain (4, 9)
  • Increased appetite (2, 9)
  • Dark/pink, swollen nipples (2, 4, 9)

If you have a pregnant queen on your hands, make sure to feed her food approved for “growth and reproduction” life stages. This is usually labeled as kitten food, but it has the nutrients queens need to nourish themselves and their kittens as well. As her pregnancy progresses, she will need her food delivered in frequent, small meals (8). There is less room for food in there, after all!

As a cat nears the end of her pregnancy, she begins looking for a nesting site (2, 5, 8, 9). In the wild, a queen seeks out a dry, safe, hidden, and defensible location to kit. She usually picks out several so that she has places to move her kittens if danger threatens the original nest. An indoor cat will exhibit essentially the same behavior. She may appreciate being provided with a box, basket, or bed lined with soft bedding (5, 8, 9). Or she may choose to have her kittens under the kitchen sink, or some other weird place. She will pick wherever she thinks is safest. When the time comes, cats give birth to an average of four kittens (2, 4).

Birth

When a queen is near to kitting, she will probably visit her nest site(s) repeatedly and make adjustments to the bedding (4). She may become restless or anxious (8). Queens with humans may act more affectionate and seek comfort, or do the opposite and become withdrawn (4, 9). They may meow, purr, or pant (4, 5). The queen cleans around her vulva and nipples (5). This is thought to strengthen her scent there and lay a trail for the newborn kittens to follow toward the milk supply (5). During this time contractions begin, but no kittens appear (5). This first stage of labor can last as long as 36 hours in new mothers (4).

When the queen enters the next phase of labor, the contractions strengthen and the first kitten is born (4). The placenta soon follows (4). As soon as she pushes each kitten out, the queen bites open the amniotic sac that surrounds them, licks their mouth and nose clear, and bites off the umbilical cord (4, 5). The queen eats the placentas and licks her kittens to clean them and stimulate them to breathe (4, 5). The time interval between kittens varies from ten minutes to an hour (4). Sometimes, labor may stop after one or more kittens, only to resume as much as 36 hours later to deliver the rest (4).

With the exception of some purebred cats, queens usually kit without a hitch. If you have a pregnant cat, though, make sure you know the phone number of both your veterinarian and the nearest emergency vet just in case. If you think anything seems wrong, call. Make sure you know ahead of time how many kittens to expect so you know if somebody hasn’t arrived yet. Get in touch with a vet if your queen has had contractions for more than an hour with no kitten arrival or if two hours have gone by without the next birth (8). If a kitten has been in the birth canal more than a minute or two, take your cat straight to the vet (8).

Myth #1: If you touch very young kittens, the mother cat will abandon them.

White mother cat and kittens
Image by StockSnap from Pixabay

Scent is very important to cats. There’s no doubt about that. And queens do occasionally abandon one or more kittens for a variety of reasons: the kittens may be sick, deformed, or unresponsive (3, 5). But if this is your cat and her kittens we’re talking about, there’s no need to worry about touching the kittens. Your own cat who is familiar with your scent has no reason to be alarmed at finding it on her offspring (3). It will not cause her to reject them (3). You can even move the kittens to a safer nesting site if you need to–although there’s no guarantee their mother won’t move them again somewhere she likes better (3). Try not to separate the queen and kittens for the first few days if you can help it, however (8).

Myth #2: If you spay a cat that has kittens, she’ll stop producing milk for them.

This is a common belief that sometimes causes problems for people. It makes perfect sense, but it isn’t true. A queen can go on feeding her kittens even after she’s been spayed. In fact, spayed she-cats that have never given birth will start producing milk if a kitten suckles them long enough (3). They can help surrogate orphan kittens this way (3). She-cats start going back into heat shortly after giving birth, so this misconception can be dangerous. People who think they need to leave their she-cat intact to feed her kittens may get stuck in a cycle of perpetual kitting. Nobody can find homes for that many unplanned kittens. This is a myth we really need to dispel.

Kittens

Neonate (0-2 Weeks)

Kittens are born with their eyes closed and their ears folded shut. They can barely wriggle; walking is certainly out of the question. They also can’t control their body temperature or eliminate waste on their own (1, 7). Newborn kittens rely on their mother for everything, not just food. She keeps them warm and clean, she stimulates them to urinate and defecate, and she defends them from any danger. For the first 4-5 days, neonates (from the Greek for “new” and Latin for “born”) will still have the remains of their umbilical cords attached (7). It will then fall off on its own (7). These tiny kittens weight on average 100 grams (5, 7). They can’t do much and sleep most of the time. They can purr and make distress calls, though, so they can communicate with the queen (1).

During the first week, kittens’ ears slowly start to open up (1, 7). Their eyes follow suit a couple days later (1, 7). All kittens are born with blue eyes. At the end of the first week, kittens will have doubled their birth weight (1, 5, 7). Over the course of the second week, their eyes and ears will finish opening, although their vision will take a while to reach its full potential (1, 7). Two-week-old kittens can walk a bit, but they are awfully wobbly (1, 7). Kittens this age will also start to hiss at unfamiliar scents or sounds (1). They can knead, but they cannot retract their claws yet (1).

Baby Tiger (3-5 Weeks)

A kitten’s first teeth, their incisors, come in at three weeks (1, 6, 7). They start to be able to eliminate on their own, and kittens in an indoor environment may experiment with the litter box (1, 7). They begin to be able to regulate their own body temperature as well (7). Kittens will start exploring and playing in earnest around this time (1, 6, 7).

A queen starts weaning her kittens when they are about four weeks old (5). In the wild, she also teaches them how to hunt (5). For pet cats, this is a good age to begin socializing kittens (1). Kittens at this age don’t have to be at their mother’s side every moment, so their people can start to spend some time getting them used to being handled. This is also the age when kittens’ fur coat fills out and things like markings and coat length become more apparent (1). At five weeks, a kitten’s eyesight is fully-developed, and the playtime starts to get wild (1).

Older Kitten (6-8 Weeks)

A six-week-old kitten has all of their baby teeth (7). This is typically the age when kittens are brought to the veterinarian for their first exam and vaccinations (1, 8). Kittens this age know how to clean themselves and will groom their littermates, too (1). At seven weeks, their adult eye color starts to develop (7). Some cats will keep their blue eyes, but most will change to another eye color.

At eight weeks, kittens are usually fully weaned (1, 6, 7). Kittens are sometimes adopted out at this age, as they are pretty independent from their mother. It is possible to spay/neuter kittens at eight weeks if they have reached two pounds (0.91 kg) (1, 7).

Watch Gourdon and Pepita grow up in 10 minutes! Not for those with misophonia.

Teenager (3-12 Months)

Although growth slows down a bit, a lot still has to happen before a kitten’s first year is over. They will shed their baby teeth and grow permanent ones (6). They’ll go through puberty around six months old and she-cats will have their first heat cycle (6). By that age, kittens are 80-90% of their final size (6). Teenage cats push boundaries and try new things, trying to get a sense of the world and their place in it (6). They’ll put on more muscle mass (6) and start to lose their kitten fluff. Kittens are quite fully mature at the end of their first year, but they’re almost there (6). A few more months and they’ll be all grown up (6).

Myth #3: Kittens must be six months old before they can be spayed/neutered.

It used to be the conventional wisdom that kittens needed to be six months old to be sterilized. Sometimes veterinarians may still recommend this. However, we now know that she-cats can have their first heat as early as four months old, and they can have kittens the first time they go into heat. In other words, it’s possible for a kitten to have kittens, which can lead to complications that a full-grown queen would not have. These days, it is becoming more common to instead recommend that a kitten be at least eight weeks old and at least two pounds (0.91 kg) to be sterilized (1, 6, 7). This prevents a lot more unwanted heat cycles and pregnancies.

Works Cited

  1. Alley Cat Allies. (n.d.). How old is that kitten? Kitten progression: At-a-glance. Alleycat.org. https://www.alleycat.org/resources/kitten-progression/
  2. Bukowski, J. A. and Aiello, S. (2011, July). Breeding and reproduction of cats. Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/routine-care-and-breeding-of-cats/breeding-and-reproduction-of-cats
  3. E-staff. (2007, June 21). Mothering myths & truths. CatWatch. Retrieved from https://www.catwatchnewsletter.com/features/mothering-myths-truths/
  4. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat birth. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-birth/
  5. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat pregnancy. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-pregnancy/
  6. Moore, A. (2001). The kitten owner’s manual. Storey Publishing: North Adams, Massachusetts.
  7. Shaw, H. (n.d.). Determining a kitten’s age. Kitten Lady. http://www.kittenlady.org/age
  8. Stregowski, J. (2020, October 17). How to care for a pregnant cat. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/care-of-a-pregnant-cat-555417
  9. Syufy, F. (2019, October 22). Cat pregnancy stages. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/cat-pregnancy-stages-555411

Published March 21, 2021

Breed Profiles

Egyptian Mau: Cat of the Pharaohs

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Bronze Egyptian Mau cat
Bronze Egyptian Mau – Image by liz west via Wikimedia Commons

The art of the ancient Egyptians frequently depicts cats, an animal which they considered sacred. The cats in their artwork bear a striking resemblance to a modern cat breed, the Egyptian Mau. Some believe that Egyptian Maus are actually the direct descendants of those ancient cats, a divine bloodline carried through the feral street cats of Cairo and into these pedigreed beauties. Maybe that’s true and maybe it isn’t. Egyptian Maus are special in their own right, and no cat needs to be told they deserve to be worshipped.

The male cat is Ra himself, and he is called by reason of the speech of the god Sa, who said concerning him, “He is like unto that which he hath made, thus his name became ‘Mau.'”

Egyptian Book of the Dead, 240 BCE

Along the River Nile?

According to legend, the history of the Egyptian Mau goes all the way back to ancient Egypt. Egyptian art and papyri dating as far back as 1550 BCE show similar spotted cats (9). The cats are shown assisting on duck hunts as well as in religious contexts (8, 9). However, we only know for sure that the Egyptian Mau was bred and shown in Europe in the early twentieth century (2, 4, 7, 8). Then World War II broke out, and cat fancy was one of the many things to be interrupted. Many breeding programs fell by the wayside during the war, and at its end very few Egyptian Maus remained (2, 4, 7, 8). The breed needed a hero, but not a knight in shining armor. They needed a princess to save them.

Princess Natalie Troubetskoy (or Trubetskaya) was living in exile in Rome (2, 4, 7, 8, 10). While there, she was given a silver, spotted female kitten (2). In one version of the story, the kitten came from a boy who had been keeping her in a shoebox (2). In another, the Egyptian ambassador to Italy gave her to Princess Natalie (2, 5). The princess named the kitten Baba (2, 8). She loved Baba’s unusual spotted coat. Princess Natalie bred Baba, and Baba had two kittens: a silver female, Liza, and a bronze male, Jojo, both spotted like their mother (1, 10). Princess Natalie immigrated to New York City in 1956 and brought the three cats with her (1, 2, 4, 8, 10). There, she established the Fatima Cattery to breed Egyptian Maus and wrote a breed standard (2, 4, 7, 10).

The Egyptian Mau was well-received, but early breeders faced a serious dilemma. The gene pool was miniscule. Inbreeding was inevitable, and the cats soon began to have problems. Diseases included cardiomyopathy and asthma cropped up (10). Aggressive and disagreeable temperaments were a pervasive problem as well (7, 10). The only solution was to bring more cats into the breeding program. During the 1980s and 90s, cats with a similar type were imported from Egypt and India, including the Delhi Zoo (4, 5, 8, 10). Although Egyptian Maus remain a less common breed, the gene pool is now much larger, and the problems that were pervasive in early breeding lines have largely disappeared (10).

How Egyptian is the Egyptian Mau?

Phylogenetic tree showing genetic relatedness of 24 cat breeds – Menotti-Raymond et al., 2008, Fig. 4

Genetic tools enable all kinds of interesting discoveries. Apparently I’m 0.4% Coptic Egyptian. But how Egyptian is the Egyptian Mau? The long-standing narrative assumes a direct line of descent from African wildcats to ancient Egyptian domestic cats to Egyptian Maus. Studies of the genetic variance between cat breeds and populations of non-pedigreed cats throws a monkey wrench into that story, however.

Genetic studies suggest significant European influences on the Egyptian Mau (4-6, 8). The waters are a bit muddy even here. Egyptian Maus were found to be more closely related to random-bred cats from Turkey and Tunisia than those from Egypt (5). A mitochondrial DNA analysis, which follows the maternal line, grouped Egyptian Maus with the Siamese, Russian Blue, Abyssinian, and Korat (5). Those breeds all have an Asian origin. Later studies using different methods have grouped the Egyptian Mau with Turkish Angoras and Turkish Vans (5, 6). A Turkish origin seems likely, based on the genetic evidence. As little is known about the breed before Princess Natalie revived it, pretty much anything is on the table.

Breed Characteristics

House Cheetahs

The thing that makes Egyptian Maus stand out is their spots. In fact, they are the only* naturally spotted breed of cat. This means that no one selectively bred them to try to engineer a spotted coat. They did it all on their own. Cat fanciers and cat people in general liked how their spotted coats resemble a wild cat. But these kitties aren’t hybrids like Savannahs and Bengals. They just look the part.

Their dark spots cover the body but can vary in shape and size (3, 10). They have “vest button” spots lining their pale undersides (1, 2). Egyptian Maus have a dark stripe running alone the length of their backs and tails (1). Their facial markings stand out as well. An M on their foreheads marks Egyptian Maus as a type of tabby, although you might not think of a spotted cat that way (1-4, 8). In this breed, that M is sometimes called “the mark of the scarab” because it allegedly resembles the pattern on the shell of the scarab beetle (3, 8). Egyptian Maus also have stripes resembling eyeliner running from the outer corner of each eye (1, 2, 4, 8). Their tails have dark stripes and tips (1, 4).

Only three colors of Egyptian Mau are accepted for showing: silver, bronze, and smoke. The silver has black markings on a light gray base. The bronze is thought to most closely resemble the cats of ancient Egypt, based upon the art they left behind (3). It has dark brown or black markings on a light brown base color. The smoke has solid black markings on a black smoke coat, where each hair is white with a black tip. The breed does come in a few other colors, including solids, but only as pets.

CFA Premier Shainefer’s Albion Argent, a silver Egyptian Mau – Image by Catbar via Wikimedia Commons

The Egyptian Mau is a medium-sized cat with a muscular yet graceful body. The hind legs are a little longer than the forelegs. Egyptian Maus have a flap of loose skin from their flanks to their hind knees which enables their back legs to stretch out farther when running (4, 7-10). Cheetah’s have a similar skin fold. This enables Egyptian Maus to be incredible runners and jumpers (4, 8-10).

Their heads strongly resemble ancient Egyptian depictions of cats. The shape is a rounded wedge with medium-to-large ears set well apart. The eyes are large, almond-shaped, and slant slightly upward. They are a characteristic gooseberry green color. Kittens can take a while to fully develop this eye color, and it sometimes becomes paler with age.

*The only recognized one, that is. There are others, such as the Bahraini Dilmun Cat, but they are not recognized by any cat fancy association.

Personality

Egyptian Maus are fiercely loyal cats. They bond strongly to their person or family. These cats are people-oriented and enjoy spending time with whoever they taken a shine to. They usually don’t like strangers and tend to hide around guests. Socialization at a young age is important to help them be as social as possible. If you adopt an adult Egyptian Mau, don’t be surprised if it takes a while for them to warm up to you. They just need extra patience. The wait will be worth it.

Egyptian Maus communicate quietly and charmingly. They typically use softer vocalizations like chirps and one all their own called a chortle. When pleased, they tread their feet. If excited, they “wiggle tail.” Incidentally, my Joon does this too, and it is truly bizarre. It looks like what cats do with their tails when they’re spraying, but without the spraying. I’m sort of relieved to know other cats do that, too. I digress.

The Egyptian Mau is an active breed. They enjoy games and puzzles, and some even like to play in water. Fetch tends to be a favorite. They can sometimes be possessive, including of their toys, so supervise an Egyptian Mau when they’re playing with a child or another animal until you know what to expect.

Egyptian Mau vs. Fish Toy

Caring for an Egyptian Mau

The Egyptian Mau is not known to have breed-specific health problems anymore. The addition of new, random-bred cats to the breeding population turned it into a very healthy breed. They don’t require extensive grooming, either, just the occasional brushing that any shorthair benefits from. As far as pedigreed cats go, Egyptian Maus are pretty low-maintenance, but there are some things to keep in mind.

While not hyperactive, these are athletic cats that will need plenty of places to climb. They may be good candidates for leash walking to work those long legs. Don’t forget that they are excellent jumpers, so they can probably reach heights that many cats couldn’t. Deprive them of a cat tree at your peril. They are excellent hunters, so playtime that mimics natural hunting behavior–and gets their favorite human involved–is a great way to give them some exercise, too.

Egyptian Maus get along pretty well with children, other cats, and dogs, as long as they are properly introduced. Remember, though, they aren’t fond of strangers, so new pets need to be introduced very carefully and slowly. An Egyptian Mau that wasn’t well-socialized to other animals as a kitten may not be able to cope at all. Proceed with caution. When it comes to small animals, proceed with even greater caution. The Egyptian Mau loves to hunt. Unfortunately, they see pet birds, rodents, etc. no differently than any other prey animal and might kill them (2, 8). If you have any pets that a cat might see as prey, make absolutely sure that your Egyptian Mau cannot get to them.

If you are considering an Egyptian Mau of your very own, try the CFA Egyptian Mau Breed Council Rescue or The Egyptian Mau Club‘s re-homing list. You can also check with your local shelters. Purebred go to the pound, too.

Fun Facts

  • The word “mau” comes from the Middle Egyptian “mjw,” meaning both “cat” and “sun.” (3, 6)
  • Egyptian Maus often don’t lose their baby teeth until their permanent teeth have already come in. This means, sometime between four and seven months old, they can have two full sets of teeth! (10)
  • The Egyptian Mau gestation period is longer than usual for cats. Most cats kit after about 63 days, but Egyptian Maus can have their kittens a week later with no problems. (4, 10)
  • The Egyptian Mau is the fastest breed of domestic cat. They can run at speeds up to 30 mph (48.3 kph)! (2, 4, 8)

Works Cited

  1. Alderton, D. (1992). Cats: The visual guide to more than 250 types of cats from around the world. Dorling Kindersley Limited: London.
  2. CatTime. (n.d.). Egyptian Mau. TotallyHer Media, LLC. https://cattime.com/cat-breeds/egyptian-mau-cats#/slide/1
  3. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  4. Fawcett, K. (2016, June 24). 6 fast facts about Egyptian Mau cats. Mental Floss. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/81610/6-fast-facts-about-egyptian-mau-cats
  5. Hartwell, S. (2013). Cat-breed DNA studies: True origins or legitimising impostors? Messybeast.com. http://messybeast.com/dna-studies-critique.htm
  6. Menotti-Raymond, M., David, V. A., Pflueger, S. M., Lindblad-Toh, K., et al. (2008). Patterns of molecular genetic variation among cat breeds. Genomics, 91(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygeno.2007.08.008
  7. Petfinder. (n.d.). Egyptian Mau. https://www.petfinder.com/cat-breeds/egyptian-mau/
  8. Syufy, F. (2019, September 22). Egyptian Mau: Cat breed profile. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/egyptian-mau-breed-profile-554215
  9. The Cat Fanciers’ Association. (n.d.). About the Egyptian Mau. CFA.org. https://cfa.org/egyptian-mau/
  10. The Egyptian Mau. (2002). CFA.org. https://cfa.org/egyptian-mau/egyptian-mau-article-2002/

Published March 14, 2021

Science

Feline Reproduction, Part I: Breeding Cycles and Mating

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Cartoon of feline reproductive cycle
Image by Clker-Free-Vector-Images from Pixabay

When I was doing research for a previous article, I learned something that really shocked me. I read two papers about the reasons people gave for surrendering their cats and dogs to shelters. In both, the researchers included some basic pet knowledge questions in the surveys (7, 10). I was floored at how many of the study participants didn’t know the correct answers to some really fundamental questions about canine/feline reproduction and behavior. The surveys addressed a very specific population of people, obviously, but a very important one. If they had known those things before getting a pet, might that have prevented some of those cats and dogs from ending up in a shelter?

I am only one human, but I want to do my part by adding to the available educational resources. One of the knowledge deficits among cat owners surrendering their pets involved feline reproduction (7, 10), so I am going to do a two-part series on that selfsame topic. Throughout, I will bust some commonly-held myths about the feline circle of life.

Female Reproductive Cycle

She-cats, a.k.a. mollies, or queens if they’re mothers, reach sexual maturity at about six months old (2, 6, 8). However, they may hit puberty as early as four months or as late as eighteen (9). The sign that the time has come is that they go into their first estrus, or heat, cycle.

Estrus is a period of sexual readiness during which a she-cat will seek out and accept male cats. In nature, cats usually have a breeding season that is determined by the length of the daylight (5, 9). In the northern hemisphere, it lasts from about January to October (3, 5, 6, 8, 9). However, cats that live in consistently warm climates or indoors-only may experience the breeding season year-round (5, 6, 9). When in season, she-cats go into heat every 2-3 weeks unless they become pregnant (2, 9). Heat lasts an average of six days (6, 8). This pattern of multiple estrus cycles per breeding season is called seasonal polyestry.

So, how do you know if your cat is in heat? It’s unmistakable if you know what to expect, but can actually be pretty alarming if you don’t. She-cats in heat may roll around on the floor, rub up against things, become very affectionate, yowl, and urinate more or mark outside the litter box (2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 12). The yowling of a she-cat in heat is loud, frequent, and unique. Unfamiliar owners often think their cat is ill or in pain. In truth, the crazy sound their cat is making is meant to attract toms from far and wide. She-cats in heat also assume a posture called lordosis, especially when their backs or hindquarters are touched. Lordosis involves lowering their front, raising their rear, treading their hind paws, and moving their tail to the side to indicate receptiveness for mating (9).

If you don’t know what heat looks and sounds like, this is a perfect example.

She-cats are able and willing to mate many times during an estrus cycle, often with multiple toms. Should they become pregnant, they may have kittens with different fathers in the same litter (3, 5, 6). She-cats are fertile from their very first heat and never experience menopause (2, 12). They can also have kittens more than once per breeding season. Basically, cats can have a lot of kittens over their lifetime. The Guinness Book of World Records lists the she-cat with the most kittens as Dusty, a cat from Texas whose last litter in 1952 put her at 420 kittens (12)!

Myth #1 – She-cats should have one heat/litter before being spayed

There is a fairly widespread belief that female cats–and dogs, too–are better off in some way if they have one estrus cycle or one litter in their lives (7, 10). Some people think that she-cats will be healthier if they have one heat or one litter before they are spayed (4). Others believe that she-cats who have kittens are friendlier (6). Neither of these things are true. The evidence shows that she-cats who are spayed before their first estrus are typically healthier (4). And while she-cats do have strong maternal instincts, having kittens does not change a cat’s overall personality (6).

Myth #2 – Cats should not be sterilized at all because it is unnatural/unhealthy.

As my mother always says, “Arsenic is natural.” Natural doesn’t necessarily mean good. Certainly, cats would not undergo surgery of any kind in the wild. Then again, if not for humans enabling their self-domestication, there would be no cats in the wild. I’m pretty sure one could argue what’s natural and what’s not here in circles ad infinitum. What should matter isn’t what’s the most natural but what’s the best for our cats.

In that regard, sterilization is not unhealthy. In fact, it can be quite the opposite. It prevents uterine infections as well as mammary and testicular cancers (1, 8).

Male Reproductive Cycle

Male cats, called toms, reach sexual maturity about the same time as she-cats (2, 13). However, at three months they are producing enough testosterone to start growing their penile spines (13). Yes, you read what you thought you read. Cats have spines on their penises. Quite a few mammals do, actually. There are several possible reasons why this bizarre trait evolved. We will get to why cats are thought to have them later on. The penile spines in cats are testosterone-dependent (9, 13). They finish growing when the tom reaches sexual maturity (9, 13). However, if he is neutered, the spines disappear (9).

Hissing ginger tabby cat
Image by Candid_Shots from Pixabay

The spines aren’t the only sign that a tom is all grown up. Toms begin exhibiting male sexual behavior at puberty, if not earlier. These behaviors include aggression toward other males/fighting, urine spraying to mark territory, and extensive roaming to look for mates (2, 13). Toms that are kept indoors may go to great lengths to escape, especially if there are no eligible she-cats in the household (1, 2). Unlike she-cats, toms don’t exhibit this behavior cyclically. Toms stay interested in mating year-round, although they exhibit decreased interest outside the breeding season if they are exposed to the environmental factors that regulate feline reproductive cycles (13).

Myth #3 – If I neuter my tomcat, he will feel like less of a man.

There is no evidence that cats feel any sexual identity or ego about their reproductive organs (1, 4). Toms do not exhibit an emotional reaction or go into crisis when neutered (4). Neutering does not change their personality (4). It does alter or eliminate the behaviors associate with reproduction, but that does not have a negative impact on a tom’s mental health.

Myth #4 – Sterilizing my cat will make him/her get fat and lazy.

This one came up quite a bit when I was Googling myths about cats to make sure I covered everything. I’ve heard this one before, too. I have to say I wasn’t super satisfied with the answers I saw on some of the other websites. They just said that overfeeding and lack of exercise are the culprits for weight gain, not sterilization. Here’s the thing. There’s a little grain of truth to this myth. Neutering/spaying a cat doesn’t make them fat and lazy, but it does decrease their activity level somewhat, especially for toms.

Cats of both sexes pursue mates. Toms range far and wide searching for she-cats in heat, and may break into or out of houses. That involves a lot of exercise. Once neutered, they have no need to do that. If they are receiving the same amount of food as before, they might gain weight and seem to be getting fat and lazy. The same could apply to she-cats, to a lesser extent. This isn’t to say that sterilization is bad, just that pet parents need to be vigilant about diet and exercise after the procedure.

How Kittens are Made

So Tom and Molly have found each other. Actually, several Toms may have found Molly. Up to six cats may follow a she-cat in heat, but eventually someone will approach her and see if she will accept his advance (13). If she finds him acceptable, she will assume the lordosis position. The tom then bites the scruff of her neck, mounts, mates, and dismounts (5, 8, 13). The whole process takes between 30 seconds and five minutes (8, 13). As the male dismounts, the female gives a yowl, called a copulatory call (8, 9). She then has an “after-reaction,” which frequently includes striking out at the tom, licking her genitals, and rolling around (9).

Two kittens in sexual play
Older male kittens sometimes try to practice mating behavior during play – Image from Veterian Key

No one knows for sure why she-cats often strike at toms after mating (5). It may be that the withdrawal of the male’s penis, covered with backward-facing spines, is painful, but there isn’t any definitive proof one way or the other (5). Those spines are necessary for conception, however. Cats are induced ovulators. This means that the females only release eggs for fertilization in response to a particular stimulus. For cats, that stimulus is mating. The penile spines of the tom stimulating the she-cat’s vagina is the signal for her body to release eggs (9, 12).

One pair of cats is likely to mate about six times within a couple hours before the she-cat declines him, and both may move one to another mate (8, 13). A study at the University of Minnesota found that 73.9% of she-cats who were bred an average of 5.6 times per estrus cycle became pregnant (9). Free-breeding cats are likely to mate many more times than that per heat (5).

Works Cited

  1. American Society for the Protection of Animals. (2017, February 16). Fact or fiction? Spay/neuter myths busted. ASPCA. https://www.aspca.org/news/fact-or-fiction-spayneuter-myths-busted
  2. Bond Vet. (2020, August 12). Cat reproduction: Heat cycles, pregnancies, and more. Bond Vet. https://bondvet.com/b/cat-reproduction
  3. Bukowski, J. A. and Aiello, S. (2011, July). Breeding and reproduction of cats. Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/routine-care-and-breeding-of-cats/breeding-and-reproduction-of-cats
  4. Humane Society International. (n.d.). Why spay/neuter is important. https://www.hsi.org/news-media/why_spayneuter_important/
  5. International Cat Care. (2018, July 31). Cat pregnancy. https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-pregnancy/
  6. Llera, R. and Yuill, C. (n.d.). Estrous cycles in cats. VCA Hospitals. https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/estrus-cycles-in-cats
  7. New, J. C., Jr., Salman, M. D., King, M., Scarlett, J. M., et al. (2010). Characteristics of shelter-relinquished animals and their owners compared with animals and their owners in U.S. pet-owning households. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 3(3), 179-201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327604JAWS0303_1
  8. Parrish, J. (n.d.). Reproduction in the canine and feline. Online Reproduction Courses Taught by John Parrish. http://www.ansci.wisc.edu/jjp1/ansci_repro/lec/lec_25_dog_cat/lec25out.htm
  9. Root Kustritz, M. V. (n.d.). Feline reproduction: An overview (proceedings). dvm360. https://www.dvm360.com/view/feline-reproduction-overview-proceedings
  10. Scarlett, J. M., Salman, M. D., New, J. G., Jr., and Kass, P. H. (1999). Reasons for relinquishment of companion animals in U.S. animal shelters: Selected health and personal issues. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 2(1). 41-57. doi: 10.1207/s15327604jaws0201_4
  11. Syufy, F. (2020, January 7). Guide to cat mating and reproduction. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/cat-mating-and-reproduction-555437
  12. Syufy, F. (2020, May 4). Do cats have menopause? The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/do-cats-have-menopause-555438
  13. Veterian Key. (2016, December 22). Male feline sexual behavior. https://veteriankey.com/male-feline-sexual-behavior/

Published March 7, 2021

Cat Care

What is Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR)?

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Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Trap-neuter-return (TNR) is the process of humanely trapping community cats, sterilizing them, and then returning them to the location where they were caught. TNR is also sometimes called trap-neuter-release, trap-neuter-vaccinate-return (TNVR), and trap-neuter-return-monitor (TNRM).

Feral tabby cat in trap
Image by sandid from Pixabay

The accepted method of free-roaming cat control has been to take lethal measures. Animal control has used trap-and-kill methods for over a hundred years (1, 5, 9). In addition to being horrible, it clearly has not worked. Community cats didn’t disappear or even diminish as a result. This is due to the vacuum effect.

The vacuum effect happens when animals are removed from an environment, but the resources in the environment stay the same (3, 5). The remaining animals of the species will either breed until they reach the environment’s capacity again, or animals from elsewhere will migrate to the area, or both (1, 3, 5, 9, 11). In the end, no matter how many community cats animal control departments have euthanized, the population has always recovered. TNR was created as a solution that is humane and, while it takes time, ultimately effective.

How Does TNR Work?

The goal of TNR is to reduce community cat populations over time with the least possible harm to individual cats. Ideally, the cats ultimately benefit. Cats are trapped in box traps, which are designed to not cause injury, and taken to a veterinarian. How much care they receive at the clinic depends on who is doing the TNR, but at minimum the cat is sterilized. Rabies vaccines are pretty standard (1-3, 5, 9). A variety of other vaccinations are sometimes given as well. The cats are examined, and any health issues or injuries are treated.

During the spay/neuter surgery, veterinarians often mark community cats so that others can tell they are sterilized. This prevents the cats from the unnecessary stress of being captured and possibly operated on again (3, 6, 13). Eartipping is a common method of marking sterilized community cats. Eartipping means the vet removes the top quarter inch of a cat’s ear, usually the left ear, during the surgery (2, 3, 6). It doesn’t harm the cat, and it is clearly visible even from some distance. Alternatively, vets may put a small tattoo on the abdomen (12, 13) or a v-shaped notch in the side of the ear.

After cats recover from their surgery, they are returned to the site where they were captured so that they can resume their lives without making any more kittens. A caregiver may feed and keep an eye on the community cats, but they will continue to live mostly apart from humans and be happy to do so. Not all community cats are feral, however, so not every cat that is trapped in a TNR program will be returned. Kittens and friendly adults go to the clinic like the others, but then they are adopted out (1, 5, 9). Kittens should be left with their mothers until they are weaned if at all possible.

Advantages of TNR

…For the Cats

Sterilizing community cats has big benefits for their health. She-cats are spared the physical stress and dangers of repeated pregnancies (1, 5). Cats of both sexes have drastically lower risks of reproductive cancers (1, 3). Research has demonstrated that sterilized community cats gain weight and live longer lives, too (1, 3, 5). A study at the University of Florida found that 83% of the cats in TNR-managed colonies on campus had been in the colony for at least six years (1, 5, 7).

Eartipped brown tabby cat
Sterilized cats are eartipped to identify them – Image by Lmusser22 from Pixabay

Without the drive to mate, cats fight less and don’t wander as far, so they suffer fewer injuries (1, 3, 5). And while a single dose of a vaccine usually doesn’t last forever, the vaccination(s) cats receive through TNR are more protection than they would have otherwise had from infectious diseases (1).

…For the Community

Some people are really not happy to share their space with community cats. Fortunately, sterilized cats make better neighbors. They don’t yowl, fight, and spray nearly as much as intact cats do, and this can take care of a lot of peoples’ complaints with them (1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11). Any problems that continue will dwindle over time as the community cat population shrinks.

Fewer community cats and fewer complaints about them leads to lower rates of shelter admission (1, 5, 8, 9-11, 13). San Jose, California Animal Control reported a decrease of 29.1% in their intake of cats and kittens after fours years of a citywide TNR program (6). Albuquerque, New Mexico saw a decrease of 43.5% in three years (6). This decreases the number of cats euthanized in shelters (1, 9-11). Many community cats that enter shelters are euthanized because they are not adoptable. About half of shelter workers who have to euthanize animals develop post-traumatic stress disorder (13). Not euthanizing healthy animals is better for everyone.

Fewer cats in the shelters also decreases their operating costs (1). But shelters are not the only ones that can save money as a result of TNR. The outdated catch-and-kill strategy hemorrhages taxpayer dollars to little or no effect (1, 5). As previously discussed, it just doesn’t work, but it does cost money. In the words of Mark Kumpf, former president of the National Animal Control Association, “The cost for picking up and simply euthanizing and disposing of animals is horrendous, in both the philosophical and the economic sense” (5).

The extent of the monetary cost depends on the animal control department. Similarly, how much can be saved depends on the TNR program and how it is run. In general, TNR programs appeal to volunteers and get progressively less labor-intensive over time (5). Any TNR program will save money that way.

Does It Really Work?

Research has demonstrated that TNR can, in fact, do all that is aims to, in a variety of communities at that. I’ve thrown some statistics at you already, but here’s a few more:

  • A TNR program that began in Newburyport, Massachuchetts in 1992 with about 300 cats essentially ended 17 years later when there were no cats left on the waterfront. The last cat, Zorro, died in December of 2009 at an estimated age of 16. No community cats have been seen at the waterfront since [as of interview date]. (10)
  • An 11-year study at the University of Florida observed community cats on campus. At the end of the study, the population had decreased by 66% and no new kittens had been seen since the fifth year. (7)
  • A Florida study conducted TNR for two years in one zip code, and then compared shelter intake from that zip code to the rest of the county. At the end of the study period, the shelters where there had not been any TNR had 3.5 times more cats admitted and 17.5 times more euthanized. (8).
  • A study of TNR efforts in Chicago, Illinois found that the average reduction in colony population was 54% over nine years. This was right after the city of Chicago changed its stance to support TNR. (11)
  • The University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, began a TNR campaign on campus in August, 2008. By September, 2017, the cat population had been reduced by 78%, and the 15 remaining cats were all sterilized. (12)
  • A survey of Australian TNR participants found that a median 69% of the cats in respondents’ colonies were sterilized. The median reduction in colony size was 31% over a median of 2.2 years of TNR. (13)

Criticisms of TNR

That was just a sampling of the studies supporting TNR. There have been a couple which studied a location where TNR was not successful, but the vast majority have given the method the thumbs-up. Many organizations champion TNR, including the American Society for the Protection of Animals, Humane Society of the United States, Association of Shelter Veterinarians, and American Association of Feline Practitioners. But TNR does have its opponents.

Community cats under tree
Image by Dimitris Vetsikas from Pixabay

Many of these opponents are conservationists. They are opposed to returning community cats to their territories because community cats hunt endangered birds and other wildlife (2, 4, 6). And that’s true, cats do hunt wildlife, and they are essentially an invasive species. As a domestic animal, they really have no natural habitat, although they may sometimes be considered naturalized in an environment. However, cats are far from the biggest threat to at-risk wildlife. Habitat loss is considered the worst offender by a wide margin (5, 6). Additionally, TNR is effective at reducing the population of community cats, so fewer birds and other prey animals will be hunted in future (5, 6).

Another concern is disease. Community cats can carry diseases that pet cats, humans, or other animals could catch, such as rabies and toxoplasmosis (2, 5, 6). This is certainly possible, but the Centers for Disease Control say that humans are very unlikely to get a disease from a cat (5, 6). The CDC reports only two cases of rabies transmitted from cat to human since 1960, and tells us that we would be more likely to get toxoplasmosis from eating raw meat or even gardening (5, 6). Pet cats or other animals are more at risk. However, TNR programs that vaccinate cats for common illnesses and treat them for any parasites they already have can go a long way toward reducing the disease burden in the community cat population.

Some claim that it is not humane to return community cats to their territory (2, 6). Certainly, life outdoors can be harsh. But what would be the alternative? Killing the cats can’t possibly be the more humane option unless they’re terminally ill or injured. Opponents of TNR do have some other suggestions.

A popular one is feeding bans (2, 4). A feeding ban is a law that makes it illegal to feed community cats. Nowhere that supported this solution spelled out why a feeding ban would be better, but I can only assume the idea is to drive cats away from people by withholding food, decrease the population by starving them, or both. Just because it’s illegal doesn’t mean people won’t feed cats, however (5). Even if they did, cats are resourceful. Some would starve, but many more would figure out another way to survive. If the goal is to protect wildlife, a feeding ban certainly wouldn’t help, because cats would only hunt a lot more wildlife and be driven to compete with wild predators.

Another suggestion is to criminalize abandoning cats or otherwise discourage people from abandoning their cats (2, 5). While I wish people didn’t abandon animals, they’re going to no matter what. They always have. People who argue that maintaining managed cat colonies through TNR encourages people to abandon their cats there are really missing the point (5). At any rate, even if no one ever abandoned a cat again, that leaves innumerable cats living on their own already that any action against future abandonment would no address.

There is no such thing as a perfect solution with a problem this complex. However, no one has found a better way than TNR for dealing with community cats humanely and efficiently. Even then, some programs work better than others. Everyone is learning as they go. TNR is still pretty new, but what a difference it has already made.

Ways to Get Involved

TNR can be done as an individual or with a group. Try checking with local animal shelters to see if they know of any groups doing TNR in your area. If you’re going it alone or with a few friends, make sure you’re completely prepared before you start. Alley Cat Allies, the organization that brought TNR to the United States, has excellent online resources, as do Best Friends Animal Society and Neighborhood Cats.

Step-by-Step Overview of TNR by Alley Cat Allies

Works Cited

  1. Alley Cat Allies. (2011). Why trap-neuter-return feral cats? The case for TNR. https://www.alleycat.org/resources/why-trap-neuter-return-feral-cats-the-case-for-tnr/
  2. American Bird Conservancy. (2015). Trap, neuter, release: The wrong solution to a tragic problem. https://abcbirds.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/TNR_the-wrong-solution2011.pdf
  3. American Society for the Protection of Animals. (n.d.). A closer look at community cats. https://www.aspca.org/animal-homelessness/shelter-intake-and-surrender/closer-look-community-cats
  4. Barrows, P. L. (2004). Professional, ethical, and legal dilemmas of trap-neuter-release. American Veterinary Medical Association, 225(9), 1365-1369. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2004.225.1365
  5. Best Friends Animal Society. (n.d.). Frequently asked questions about TNR. https://resources.bestfriends.org/article/frequently-asked-questions-about-tnr
  6. Best Friends Animal Society. (n.d.). TNR for stray cats: Meaning, history, statistics. https://resources.bestfriends.org/article/tnr-stray-cats-meaning-history-statistics
  7. Levy, J. K., Gale, D. W., and Gale, L. A. (2000). Evaluation of the effect of a long-term trap-neuter-return and adoption program on a free-roaming cat population. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 222(1), 42-46. https://doi.org/10.2460/javma.2003.222.42
  8. Levy, J. K., Isaza, N. M., and Scott, K. C. (2014). Effect of high-impact targeted trap-neuter-return and adoption of community cats on cat intake to a shelter. The Veterinary Journal, 201(3), 269-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.05.001
  9. Neighborhood Cats. (n.d.). What is TNR? Managing feral and stray cats. https://www.neighborhoodcats.org/how-to-tnr/getting-started/what-is-tnr
  10. Spehard, D. D. and Wolf, P. J. (2017). An examination of an iconic trap-neuter-return program: The Newburyport, Massachusetts case study. Animals, 7(11), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani7110081
  11. Spehar, D. D. and Wolf, P. J. (2018). A case study in citizen science: The effectiveness of a trap-neuter-return program in a Chicago neighborhood. Animals, 8(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8010014
  12. Swarbrick, H. and Rand, J. (2018). Application of a protocol based on trap-neuter-return (TNR) to manage unowned urban cats on an Australian university campus. Animals, 8(5), 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8050077
  13. Tan, K., Rand, J., and Morton, J. (2017). Trap-neuter-return activities in urban stray cat colonies in Australia. Animals, 7(6), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani7060046

Published February 21, 2021

Breed Profiles

Snowshoe: Special Snowflakes of Cat Fancy

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Snowshoe cat on sofa
Image by TootSweetCarole from Pixabay

There’s a winter storm coming across half the United States this week, so now seemed like the perfect time to talk about the Snowshoe. No, not the things for your feet, although you might want some of those. I’m referring to an uncommon breed of cat whose paws look like they just took a stroll through the snow.

A Happy Accident

White paws cropped up occasionally as a “flaw” in Siamese cats for a long time (5). There is evidence of this is a Victorian photograph of a litter of purebred Siamese kittens in which one kitten has four white paws (2-4). The modern breed is fairly new, however. The first attempt to breed a color-point cat with white socks took place in the 1950s (2, 4). The nascent breed was called Silver Laces, but the breeding program was short-lived (2, 4). They got a second chance in the ’60s.

Dorothy Hinds-Daugherty, a Siamese breeder in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, discovered three kittens with white paws in one of her cattery’s litters (3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10). She thought the trait had potential. Hinds-Daugherty began by breeding the white-footed Siamese to a tuxedo Domestic Shorthair (3, 4, 6, 7, 10). This introduced white facial markings (3, 6, 10). She then bred those offspring back to Siamese cats to bring back the color-point pattern, which is recessive and must be inherited from both parents (7, 9). The resulting breed type was not quite like either parent breed. Hinds-Daugherty coined it the Snowshoe in honor of the white paws that started it all and applied (2, 3).

The Snowshoe faced an uphill battle, however. Some cat fanciers opposed the breed because they feared it might cause white markings to become a widespread problem in Siamese breeding stock (1). Snowshoes are also just difficult to breed. Their pattern relies on a combination of recessive traits and other genetic factors (2, 9). Breeders were discouraged by the inconsistency of the white markings (10). By 1977, only four Snowshoes were registered (2, 3). Just in time, breeders started to seriously take interest in Snowshoes. Nevertheless, the breed is still rare and difficulties remain in conforming these cats to type (2, 4, 9).

Breed Characteristics

Snowshoe cat full body
Championship Snowshoe – The International Cat Association

Straight to the Points

The hallmark of Snowshoes is their unique markings. They have a color-point pattern like their Siamese ancestors, meaning they have light-colored bodies with darker coloration on their legs, tails, ears, and faces (1-10). Although color-points can be any color and even come in patterns like tabby or tortoiseshell, Snowshoes are almost always seal (black/dark brown) or blue (gray) point (2-6, 9, 10). Lighter point colors make the Snowshoe’s white markings difficult to distinguish, and some may be difficult to breed (2, 4, 10).

Like all color-point cats, Snowshoes are born completely white and begin to develop their pattern with age. It may take up to two years for a Snowshoe’s pattern to come in (1)! Only once the color-points begin to appear and the body to darken will the other markings become apparent.

Snowshoes must have four white paws, but they can have other white markings as well (1-10). Snowshoes may or may not have white patches on their chins, chests, and stomachs (2, 4, 6-8). They can also have white on their faces. The breed standard prefers an inverted, symmetrical V in the center of the face (2-4, 9). Of course, the actual patterns of bicolor cats vary widely, which is just one of the difficulties in breeding Snowshoes.

The Snowshoe is not just a Siamese cat with white feet. Snowshoes have a blend of traits from both Siamese and Domestic Shorthairs. They are a medium-sized cat, moderately long like a Siamese but also muscular and athletic like a Domestic Shorthair (1-5, 7, 9, 10). The head is roughly shaped like an equilateral triangle (1-3, 9, 10). Inset in that face are the Siamese’s striking blue eyes (1-10). The eyes are considered “walnut shaped,” rounder than a Siamese’s almond eyes but narrower than a Domestic Shorthair’s (2-4, 9). They have short to medium fur with a smooth texture (4, 7, 9, 10).

Personality

Like everything else about them, the Snowshoe’s personality is a little bit Siamese, a little bit Domestic Shorthair. Like the Siamese, they are very “talkative” cats, although Snowshoes have a quieter voice with a melodic sound (4, 6-10). They’re intelligent, active cats who often enjoy learning tricks and games (3, 4, 8, 9). Snowshoes can be quite good at feline agility courses (4, 8)! Curiously, Snowshoes also enjoy playing and even sometimes swimming in water, a trait that doesn’t seem to come from either side of the family (3, 4, 6-9).

Snowshoe cat close-up
All Snowshoes have blue eyes – Image by TootSweetCarole from Pixabay

Snowshoes are highly social cats. They tend to bond most strongly to one person and want to spend a whole lot of time together (3, 4, 8-10). They’re usually pretty outgoing, however, and will be friendly to any trusted person–or pet. Snowshoes do well with children, dogs, and other cats, and in fact typically prefer to have some company when the humans are away (3, 4, 6, 8, 9).

Care and Keeping of Snowshoes

There are no known breed-associated health concerns with Snowshoes. Part of this is likely due to the newness of the breed. The Domestic Shorthair background may play a role as well. Domestic Shorthairs are just regular cats couched in fancy language, and they have the most genetic diversity in the cat world with occasional exceptions. Snowshoes can sometimes have kinked tails or crossed eyes like Siamese cats, but these idiosyncrasies don’t cause the cats any harm (4, 6, 9).

Because they are so social, Snowshoes can be prone to separation anxiety or simply boredom when left home alone (3, 6, 9). Fortunately, these cats’ ability to play well with other animals means that people who can’t be home all day, which is to say most of us, can have a Snowshoe as long as they have other pets to keep them company. Plenty of toys and places to climb is also recommended to keep these active cats out of trouble.

Snowshoes are really pretty low-maintenance as purebred cats go. Their short, single-layer coat requires only the most basic of grooming. No bathing required.

If you would like a Snowshoe of your own, Siamese cat rescues sometimes take them in, like Austin Siamese Rescue. SOS Cat Rescue and Rehoming, also in Texas, USA, rescues Siamese, Oriental Shorthairs, and Snowshoes. You can also check at your local shelter. Even purebred cats are surrendered and waiting for a forever home.

Fun Facts

  • Tardar Sauce, the world-famous Grumpy Cat, was a mixed-breed thought to have had Snowshoe in her gene pool, maybe. Her mother was a calico and her father was suspected to be a certain blue-and-white tabby but no one can say for sure. (3, 9)
  • A Snowshoe from California named Dusty earned the nickname Klepto Kitty due to his habit of stealing the neighbors’ belongings. Not just once or twice. Dusty was feature on The Late Show with David Letterman in February 2011, by which time he had stolen over 600 items! Dish towels, socks, gloves, and balls were frequent targets, but nothing–not even bikinis–was safe. (3, 8, 9)
  • A purebred Snowshoe kitten can cost between $750 and $1800. (3)
Dusty the Klepto Kitty

Works Cited

  1. Alderton, D. (1992). Cats: The visual guide to more than 250 types of cats from around the world. Dorling Kindersley Limited: London.
  2. American Cat Fanciers’ Association. (n.d.). Snowshoe breed synopsis. http://www.acfacat.com/snowshoe_synopsis.htm
  3. Baines, L. (2020, December 11). Introducing a puss in boots: The Snowshoe cat breed. CertaPet. https://breed.certapet.com/snowshoe-cat/
  4. Cattime. (n.d.). Snowshoe. TotallyPets. https://cattime.com/cat-breeds/snowshoe-cats#/slide/1
  5. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  6. Johnstone, G. (2019, September 23). Snowshoe cat: Breed profile. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/snowshoe-cat-breed-profile-4769066
  7. Petfinder. (n.d.). Showshoe. https://www.petfinder.com/cat-breeds/snowshoe/
  8. Sorocco, E. (2019, January 10). 11 reasons to love the Snowshoe cat. Catster. Retrieved from https://www.catster.com/cats-101/facts-about-the-snowshoe-cat
  9. Taylor, C. (2020, September 4). Snowshoe cat. Daily Paws. https://www.dailypaws.com/cats-kittens/cat-breeds/snowshoe
  10. The International Cat Association. (2018, August 13). Snowshoe breed. https://tica.org/snowshoe-breeders?view=article&id=880:snowshoe-breed&catid=79

Published February 14, 2021

Behavior

Why do cats purr?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Brown tabby cat in lap
Image by Hans Braxmeier from Pixabay

What could bring more joy than a purring kitty curled up in your lap? And there are so many different kinds of purrs. Some cats purr like a lawn mower engine, and some are so quiet you could barely hear them with your ear on their chest. Purring is a uniquely feline behavior. We associate it with happy kitties, but cats actually purr under a lot of different circumstances. This rather odd sound must serve a purpose besides being adorable. So why do cats purr?

Anatomy of the Purr

First things first: what even is purring? As someone who used to try it for myself as a child, I promise it doesn’t come naturally if you aren’t a cat. There was a lot of debate about how cats purred for a long time. One prominent theory was that the purring sound came from a change in the cat’s blood flow [1, 4, 6]. Now, biologists are generally agreed that cats purr using the muscles of their larynx and diaphragm [1, 3-5, 7]. By vibrating their larynx, which in turn vibrates their hyoid bone [5], a cat causes the air in their throat to vibrate as well, creating the sound we know as purring [1, 6].

Most vocalizations can only be made when exhaling. It just makes sense. You need air in your lungs to push through your larynx to talk, sing, laugh, etc. The same is true of other animals. However, cats can purr on the exhale and the inhale, which is what enables them to purr constantly [1-5, 7]. This is due to the continual vibration of the larynx as they breathe in and out through it [1].

Cats Purr to Communicate

Cats first start to purr by the time they are a week old [1, 2, 4]. The purring of her newborns may signal to a queen their location and wellbeing [1, 2, 4]. It is thought that each kitten has a unique purr their mother can recognize so that she can tell which of her babies is communicating with her [2].

Queens will also purr for their kittens [5, 6]. One reason may be to provide a tactile cue to help blind and deaf newborn kittens locate the milk supply [6]. Even though very young kittens can’t hear the purring yet, they can feel the vibrations because they are, ideally, never far away. Alternatively, the mother’s purring may disguise the soft mews of the kittens from the ears of predators [5]. Whatever the evolutionary reason, purring cements the bond between queen and kittens [5].

Some adult cats purr when feeding, possibly a throwback to that kittenhood behavior [1]. Cats may also purr to inform their person that they want their food, now please [1]! The purr of solicitation sounds different from the snuggly purr [1]. What’s the difference? It’s hard to say for sure. Our lack of knowledge about how cats communicate with each other makes it harder to understand the nuances of how they communicate with us.

One thing that’s certain is cats in the wild purr when they groom each other [1]. Grooming is an important part of a cat’s daily life and a positive social interaction between cats who have a bond. Perhaps this comes closest to the contended purring of a cat that is lying in a warm lap or being petted.

Mother cat and kittens in barn
Queens and their kittens purr to communicate – Image by Franz W. from Pixabay

Healing Vibrations

Cats don’t just purr for happy reasons. They sometimes purr when they’re stressed, scared, injured, or dying [1, 3-5, 7, 8]. Cats have sometimes been seen lying alongside another, injured cat, both purring [7]. This is called “purr therapy” because the purring is believed to be a way of comforting the injured cat [7]. In stressful situations, purring can serve as a method of self-soothing [7]. However, it may be an even more powerful tool than that.

Cats purr at a frequency of 20-150 Hertz [1, 3]. These low-frequency vibrations have demonstrated healing benefits [1, 3, 4, 7, 8]. 25 and 50 Hz frequencies promote bone growth and fracture healing [8]. 100 Hz has therapeutic use for pain, wound healing, swelling, and difficulty breathing [8]. It may seem far-fetched, but bones do respond to pressure by hardening [1, 7]. And there is a good evolutionary reason why cats might vibrate their way to good health.

Cats are ambush predators. This means they spend a lot of their time resting and waiting in-between hunts. Purring could have evolved as a low-energy way to stimulate their muscles and bones while stationary [3, 7]. Then their bones wouldn’t weaken or become brittle over time from lack of use [7]. Interestingly, researchers have proposed just such a fix for astronauts. Muscle atrophy and bone density loss are a big problem on long space missions where the lack of gravity prevents normal exercise. Vibrating foot plates have been suggested to stimulate astronauts’ bones and prevent them from losing density [7]. It seems the cats had that figured out a long time ago.

Do All Cats Purr?

Probably not, but it kind of depends upon how you define purring, apparently. Once upon a time in the early 1800s, biologists believed that cats could either roar or purr, but it was impossible to do both [7]. This is how cats came to be divided into the “big cats,” or subfamily Pantherinae, and the “small cats,” subfamily Felinae [6, 7]. Although most big cats are larger than most small cats, those names are actually a misnomer, since the smallest of the “big cats,” the clouded leopard, is smaller than the biggest of the small cats, the puma [7]. The basis of the division on roaring vs. purring is also probably inaccurate.

Two sleepy bobcats
Housecats aren’t the only ones that purr! – Image by Amber Stevens from Pixabay

The Pantherinae cats have a rope of tough, flexible cartilage where the Felinae have only the hyoid bone [5, 6]. This gives the larynx greater flexibility so that roaring is possible, although lions are the only ones to make regular use of this ability [5, 6]. Does this mean they can’t purr, though? These days, biologists tend to believe than most cats can purr, or at least something like it [3, 7]. Some call it a purr-like vocalization or a hum rather than a true purr [3, 4, 6].

Even granting that most cats can actually purr, some of the Pantherinae are usually believed to be exceptions: lions, leopards, jaguars, tigers, snow leopards, and clouded leopards [7]. But that may yet prove untrue. The anthropologist and animal behaviorist Elizabeth Marshall Thomas suggests that big cats may reserve purring for their cubs and that is why people think they don’t purr at all [6]. We simply aren’t around when they do.

Works Cited

  1. Dowling, S. (2018, July 25). The complicated truth about a cat’s purr. BBC Future. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20180724-the-complicated-truth-about-a-cats-purr
  2. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  3. Lyons, L. A. (2006, April 3). Why do cats purr? Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/why-do-cats-purr/
  4. Science Reference Section. (2019, November 19). Why and how do cats purr? Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/everyday-mysteries/item/why-and-how-do-cats-purr/
  5. Stewart, D. (1995, April 1). Do lions purr? And why are there no green mammals? The National Wildlife Federation. https://www.nwf.org/Magazines/National-Wildlife/1995/Questions-and-Answers-About-Wildlife
  6. Thomas, E. M. (1994). The tribe of tiger: Cats and their culture. Simon & Schuster: New York.
  7. Venton, D. (2015, May 8). Why do cats purr? It’s not just because they’re happy. Wired. https://www.wired.com/2015/05/why-do-cats-purr/
  8. von Muggenthaler, E. (2001). The felid purr: A healing mechanism? The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 110(5), 2666. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4777098

Published February 7, 2021

Updated June 20, 2022