Culture

The Killer Lions of Tsavo

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Meredith Hemphill

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Pride of Tsavo lions
Lions in Tsavo National Park, Kenya

Humans are not at the top of the food chain. Throughout history, big cats have sometimes made a meal of us [5]. Although lions typically prefer large prey like buffalo and wildebeest, a 5000-year-old Egyptian cosmetic palette depicting lions eating the fallen on the battlefield tells us that lions have been known to prey upon people for a long time [5]. But one episode of human-lion conflict at the end of the nineteenth century really captured the popular imagination. The “man-eating” lions of Tsavo (SAH-vo) terrorized the Tsavo region of Kenya for nine months in 1898 [1-7] and may have preyed on humans unnoticed for several years prior [5]. The man who killed them, J. H. Patterson, was hailed as a hero [4, 5]. He estimated that the lions killed as many as 135 people [1-3, 5-7].

The Lions, the Colonel, and the Railroad

The lion’s roar was such that the very earth would tremble at the sound, and where was the man who did not feel afraid?

From epic poem gifted to Col. Patterson by his work crew [4]

The British Colonial Office was building a railway from the port of Mombasa, Kenya, to Nairobi, which was then in Uganda [3-5, 7]. Then they reached the Tsavo River. Tsavo means “place of slaughter” [3, 4]. Building a rail bridge over the river proved much harder than anticipated, at first mostly for engineering reasons such as locating the right type of stone locally [4]. So they hired a civil engineer to lead the Tsavo bridge project: Colonel J. H. Patterson [2-6]. Construction began in March 1898 [2, 4]. Very soon, he encountered a problem his education did not prepare him for.

“Our work was soon interrupted in a rude and startling manner. Two most voracious and insatiable man-eating lions appeared upon the scene, and for over nine months waged an intermittent warfare against the railway and all those connected with it in the vicinity of Tsavo,” Col. Patterson explained in his 1907 book The Man-Eaters of Tsavo and other East African Adventures [4]. They were large male lions without manes, working together, which is atypical behavior for lions. They attacked at night, tearing through the protective walls of thorns, called bomas, that the rail workers built around their camps, and then dragging sleeping people from their tents off into the bush [4].

Col. Patterson considered it his responsibility to do something to protect his work crew, so he turned everything he’d learned from his big game hunting hobby toward killing the Tsavo lions [4]. But the lions managed to evade him for months. They never struck the same encampment twice in a row, making it impossible for him to stake them out [4]. At first the lions were easily kept at bay by fire and loud noises, but they became less and less afraid of human things as time wore on [4]. The only thing that seemed to deter them was being out of their reach, so the crew went on strike December 1st to be allowed to build elevated sleeping platforms [4]. It was this work stoppage that finally brought the slaughter to international attention [5].

J. H. Patterson and Tsavo lion
Col. Patterson with first Tsavo lion – Photo from Field Museum on Wikimedia Commons

Later that month, however, Col. Patterson finally caught a break. He baited the lions with the corpse of a donkey that one of them had already killed when attacking a camp [4]. He hoped that one or both lions would come back to finish eating their kill, so he had a rickety platform built to keep watch on [4]. The lion did return, but decided to stalk Col. Patterson instead [4]! Col. Patterson managed to shoot the lion dead before being killed himself [4]. A couple weeks later, he baited the second lion with a trio of goats and killed it as well [4, 5]. Both lions were over 9 feet (2.7 m) long [4, 6].

Col. Patterson detailed the deaths of 14 victims in his book but put the total at “no less than twenty-eight Indian coolies, in addition to scores of unfortunate African natives of whom no official record was kept” [4]. The railroad office in London recorded the deaths of 28 railroad workers who fell prey to the Tsavo lions [3, 5]. Col. Patterson later specified that 107 locals were killed, which is how we get the 135 number [5]. However, research conducted at the Field Museum many years later estimated that the lions actually consumed about 35 people during their lifetimes [1, 2]. Human flesh made up about 30% of one lion’s diet and 13% of the other’s [1].

Why did the lions of Tsavo become man-eaters?

Patterson didn’t give much attention to this question, giving only such dismissive explanations as the lions’ incredible savageness and “sheer insolent contempt for man” [4, 6]. In his time and place, animal behavior and cognition were not front of mind. The lions killed humans because they were evil, and that was that [4]. But we have learned a lot about why animals do what they do in the past 125 years. Researchers have come up with several theories of what motivated the lions of Tsavo to kill and eat humans.

Bad Teeth

In the late 1990s, researchers examined the skulls of the Tsavo man-eaters and discovered significant dental problems [1, 2, 5]. The first lion Col. Patterson killed had a severely broken canine that exposed the tooth pulp, a root tip abscess, and three missing incisors [1-3, 5]. The scientists believed the injuries happened early in life because the lion’s jaws had changed shape from the asymmetry of its teeth [1, 5]. They hypothesized that the injuries were caused by a kick or strike from the horn of the lion’s prey and may have made it difficult for him to catch the tough-skinned wild animals lions typically prey upon [1-3, 5]. He may have made a habit of hunting slow, squishy humans as a matter of necessity [1-3, 5].

Lion skull with broken teeth
Severe dental trauma of Tsavo man-eater – Photo from Peterhans, Julian, & Gnoske [5]

The second lion had minor dental injuries: two broken teeth, one an old injury and one new [5]. These type of dental injuries are common among wild lions, though, and the researchers didn’t think they were enough to change the lion’s behavior [1, 5]. If the two lions already hunted together, however, the second lion may have taken his friend’s lead in hunting new prey [5].

Field Museum scientists studied the wear and tear patterns on the Tsavo man-eaters’ teeth and concluded that they had not been crunching up bones like wild lions normally do [1, 2]. Their teeth looked more like those of zoo lions [1, 2]. This supports the idea that the two lions were eating a softer diet [2]. But while there is a wide belief that lions and other big cats who eat humans are usually old, sick, or injured, statistically that is not the case [5]. A study in 2014 of the skulls of lions that preyed on humans and/or livestock, a.k.a. “problem lions,” found that most were healthy and in the prime of their lives [5]. Those that were debilitated usually had leg injuries that made it difficult for them to chase down and grasp prey, rather than tooth problems [5].

Cultured Beasts

The idea that non-human animals have their own cultures might seem strange, but many species have been shown to exhibit differences in behavior between subpopulations that can only be explained as knowledge passed through the generations [5]. Tsavo lions have some of these cultural differences that set them apart from neighboring lion populations [5, 7]. The lions of Tsavo live in prides about half the size of Serengeti lions, with only one male and up to ten females [7]. There is never more than one male in the pride in Tsavo [7]. Tsavo lions are also known for preying on humans [5, 7].

Humans may have taught the lions this habit [5, 7]. For centuries, Arab slave traders used the same routes through Tsavo to the port at Mombasa [5, 7]. Along the way, many of the slaves would die from sickness or maltreatment [5, 7]. The dead and dying were left where they fell [5, 7]. Lions are known for being predators, but they will scavenge, too [5, 6]. They likely learned that humans were a good food source by feeding on the bodies of those slaves [3, 5, 7].

Through the generations, the lions remembered that humans are prey. The Kenya-Uganda railway was built along an old caravan path that had probably provided the lions of Tsavo with much human and livestock prey in the past [5]. When thousands of largely unprotected workmen appeared on the path, it may have seemed like a dinner invitation to a pair of young lions.

Changing Environment

Some big changes in the lions’ environment could have prompted them to change their hunting behavior. For one, lions are ambush predators, like almost all felines, so they prefer to hunt from within vegetation or other natural cover [5]. The Tsavo region is especially hot and dry, with the vegetation growing as tangled thornbush called “nyika” [4-6]. The ivory trade significantly reduced the number of elephants in the region by the 1890s, and fewer elephants led to more vegetation [5]. In his book, Col. Patterson describes literally crawling through the nyika looking for the killer lions [4]. These thickets made it easier for the lions to ambush the rail workers [5].

The pair of lions’ interest in the rail workers may have stemmed from environmental changes as well. Since the 1860s, Tsavo had been suffering from severe drought and famine as well as epidemics of cholera and plague [4, 6]. This reduced the population of wild prey, but it also led to large numbers of dead and dying humans left in the wilderness for the lions to eat instead, training them on the new food source [6]. Exacerbating the lions’ plight was a dire epidemic of rinderpest, a deadly cattle disease that also affects many wild herd animals [3, 5-7]. Rinderpest is native to Asia and arrived in Africa in 1887 through infected cattle from India [6]. The first African rinderpest epidemic killed 95% of Ethiopia’s cattle [6]. Buffalo, favorite prey of lions in Tsavo, are particularly vulnerable [5]. With the lions’ usual prey depleted, the switch to humans may have been a simple and practical decision.

Visit the Lions of Tsavo

Author with lions of Tsavo at Field Museum
Selfie with the lions of Tsavo – Photo by author

After killing the Tsavo man-eaters, Col. Patterson skinned them both and turned them into trophy rugs [2]. In 1925, he sold the skins to the Chicago Field Museum, where they were mounted as taxidermy specimens and displayed in a diorama [2, 3]. They are still on display with the mammals of Africa in the Rice Gallery [2]. I’ve been to see them myself, and I highly recommend visiting the Field Museum if you can.

You can also visit Tsavo National Park in Kenya and see the living lions of Tsavo that still roam the same land Col. Patterson’s man-eaters once stalked. It is one of Africa’s largest game reserves, sporting about 675 lions within the ecosystem as well as a wide variety of other wildlife. [7]

Works Cited

  1. DeSantis, L. R. G. and Patterson, B. D. (2017). Dietary behaviour of man-eating lions as revealed by dental microwear textures. Scientific Reports, 7, 904. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-00948-5
  2. Field Museum. (2018, February 10). Tsavo lions. https://www.fieldmuseum.org/blog/tsavo-lions
  3. Newbart, D. (2004, August/September). Mystery of the man-eating lions. National Wildlife.
  4. Patterson, J. H. (1907). The man-eaters of Tsavo. The Lyons Press: Guilford, CT.
  5. Peterhans, K., Julian, C., and Gnoske, T. P. (2001). The science of ‘man-eating’ among lions Panthera leo with a reconstruction of the natural history of the ‘man-eaters of Tsavo.’ Journal of East African Natural History, 90(1), 1-40. https://doi.org/10.2982/0012-8317
  6. Tomasula y Garcia, A. (2014) The lions of Tsavo: man-made man-eaters. Western Humanities Review, 68(1), 195-200.
  7. Tsavo National Park. (n.d.). Tsavo National Park lions. https://www.tsavonationalparkkenya.com/tsavo-national-park-lions/

Published July 23rd, 2023

Science

Gene therapy may hold promise for cat birth control

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Tabby cat carry her kitten
Image by Rajesh Balouria from Pixabay

Last month, an article was published in Nature Communications by a team of scientists from the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden, the Horae Gene Therapy Center, and Massachusetts General Hospital [7-9]. They tested a gene therapy injection as an alternative to spaying and neutering for cat birth control, and the results are exciting.

Why do we need cat birth control?

80% of the estimated 600 million domestic cats in the world are strays or feral [4, 9]. Cat overpopulation leads to more disease and greater loss of birds and other small animals from predation [2-6]. Animal shelters become overrun with homeless kittens and cats, and many are ultimately killed. Cats reproduce very quickly, so it doesn’t take long for a few to become a serious overpopulation issue. The only method of sterilization currently available is spay/neuter surgery. It is effective and permanent, but there are drawbacks.

Surgical sterilization has to be performed by a veterinarian at a surgical clinic [2]. It’s an invasive procedure for females, and both sexes are supposed to have a recovery period, including medication [2]. It’s also expensive [2, 6]. Those resources are in short supply, even more so in developing countries [1, 2, 6]. Thus, there has been interest in non-surgical cat contraception for years. Previous attempts have included vaccines targeting the pituitary gland, toxins targeting reproductive cells, and RNA-silencing drugs to shut down the genetic mechanism of conception [1, 3, 5]. All were either ineffective or unsafe [3, 5].

The Alliance for Contraception in Cats and Dogs (ACC&D) was founded in 2000 with the goal of finding a one-time, permanent, non-surgical contraceptive that would help to curb the overpopulation of homeless cats and dogs [1, 5]. ACC&D wasn’t involved in this study, but ACC&D President Joyce Briggs said, “This research is a huge leap—we’re really excited about it” [1, 5]. She also noted that the lead author, Dr. Lindsey Vansandt, is someone they have worked with before on a contraceptive vaccine called GonaCon [1].

The organization that provided the primary funding for the Vansandt research team has a similar goal. The Michelson Found Animals Foundation was founded in 2009 by inventor Gary Michelson [1, 2, 5]. Its goal is also a single-use, permanent, non-surgical dog and cat birth control, although specifically as a marketable product [1, 2]. Toward this end, the Michelson Found Animals Foundation created the Michelson Prize, $50 million (USD) in research funding plus $25 million if successful [1, 2, 5, 7]. So far, they have given out 41 grants [1, 5].

David Grimm, a journalist for Science, explained that it can be very difficult to get funding for this kind of research; most of the money goes toward studying the human body. So the Michelson Prize grants have been a huge boost to searching for a better companion animal contraceptive. [2]

The Experiment

Dr. David Pepin didn’t have his eyes on the Michelson Prize at first, however. Pepin was looking for ways to help women with ovarian cancer preserve their fertility [6-8]. He was studying anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), sometimes called Müllerian inhibiting hormone (MIS), which made by the ovarian follicles of female mammals [1, 2, 4-8]. An ovarian follicle is a layer of cells around an egg that nourish the egg as it grows and matures.

Pepin was trying to learn more about what AMH does, so he injected an extra copy of the AMH gene into female mice [2, 4, 5]. This technique, sometimes called gene therapy, does not change the native DNA. It adds new, free-floating pieces of DNA into the cells, complete with all the information the cells need to read the “instructions” on the new piece of DNA. Gene therapy has been used to treat genetic diseases in humans, hence the name, but in this case Pepin was using the same procedure for research purposes to see how the mice would respond to high levels of AMH. He was surprised when the mice’s ovaries shrank, stopped producing eggs, and became infertile [1, 2, 4-6].

“We thought, well, this is a very interesting tool, but what can we use it for?” Pepin said [4]. He decided to submit an application for a Michelson Prize grant, and Bill Swanson, Director of Animal Research at the Cincinnati Zoo, happened to review it [1, 2, 4, 5]. Swanson had actually been working on an opposite project, trying to increase breeding in captive big cats [2, 5]. However, the Cincinnati Zoo maintains a research colony of domestic cats, and Swanson thought Pepin’s proposal was a great idea, so a partnership was struck [2, 4, 5].

Diagram of cat birth control experiment
Experimental design – From Vansandt et al. 2023

The study was small, with three groups of only three she-cats each [3-5, 7, 9]. The nine cats were all named after former first ladies: Michelle, Betty, Abigail, Nancy, Dolly, Barbara, Rosalyn, Jacque and Mary [4]. The domestic cat gene for AMH was constructed into a piece of DNA that the cats’ cells could read, and then that piece of DNA, named fcMISv2, was taken up by the harmless AAV9 virus [9]. Viruses are used in gene therapy because they naturally have the ability to insert genetic material into cells. Three cats served as a control group and were injected in the thigh muscle with AAV9 viruses that were empty, no DNA to inject [3, 7, 9]. Three cats were injected with a lower dose of viruses carrying the gene, and the other three received a higher dose [3, 7-9].

The experimental cats’ muscle cells successfully incorporated the fcMISv2 DNA and began to make AMH [9]. According to Pepin, “A single injection of the gene therapy vector causes the cat’s muscles to produce AMH, which is normally only produced in the ovaries, and raises the overall level of AMH about 100 times higher than normal” [7, 8]. Although their AMH levels increased, only progesterone decreased in response [5, 9]. Their other hormone levels remained the same, their hormone cycles were unaffected, and they showed no signs of adverse side effects [2, 3, 5, 7-9].

During two mating trials, two different toms were each introduced to the nine she-cats for four months at a time [3, 5, 7, 9]. All of the cats in the control group mated, became pregnant, and gave birth to kittens [3, 5, 7-9]. Only two of the cats who received gene therapy even allowed the toms to mate, and none of them ever became pregnant or had kittens [3, 5-9]. At the end of the two-year study, they were maintaining steady, elevated AMH levels, and the scientists are cautiously optimistic that this method may be a permanent contraceptive [5, 7-9].

What happens next?

It remains unclear exactly how AMH functions as kitty birth control [1, 2, 5, 9]. The researchers believe that the elevated levels of AMH prevent she-cats’ follicles from developing and thereby prevent ovulation [2-5, 9]. However, more research is needed to understand exactly how AMH works, and to answer lingering questions.

For instance, is this sterilization truly permanent [1, 2, 6]? The scientists who authored the study believe it is, but they only tested those cats for two years, so no one can say for sure yet that it doesn’t eventually wear off. Are there any negative side effects that they didn’t catch in such a small study [6]? Could AMH work for dogs, too [1, 2, 5, 6]? That is an important goal of this kind of research, not to mention a requirement to win the Michelson Prize [1, 5]. There are also concerns about cost, as that is often what prevents people from spaying and neutering cats now [1, 2]. If a new AMH shot will cost as much or more than surgically sterilizing cats, the convenience of the one-dose injection won’t really matter [1, 2].

Pepin, Swanson, and the Michelson Foundation are already in talks with the Food and Drug Administration about a larger trial and the possibility of bringing an AMH drug to market [2, 5, 6], so keep your ear to the ground. In the meantime, GonaCon, the cat birth control vaccine that study author Lindsey Vansandt worked on with ACC&D, has shown promise as well and may actually be closer to becoming available [1]. Either way, this area of study appears to be accelerating, and there may be more exciting news to come in the next few years.

Two kittens peeking through hole in wooden wall
Effective feline contraception means fewer homeless kittens – Image by Sommer from Pixabay

As for the cats from the study, they were all put up for adoption after the research concluded [4]. This is something the Cincinnati Zoo does with their research participants–Bill Swanson already has three cats he adopted from previous studies [4]. I couldn’t find out if all nine have been adopted yet, so if you live in the Cincinnati area and are looking for a new feline friend, email [email protected]. The cats’ new owners are asked to bring them back to the zoo for a yearly check-up to monitor their hormone levels and make sure there haven’t been any side effects [4].

References

  1. Clifton, Merritt. (2023, June 8). No, the wait for a single-shot chemosterilant for cats has not ended. Animals 24-7. https://www.animals24-7.org/2023/06/08/no-the-wait-for-a-single-shot-chemosterilant-for-cats-has-not-ended/
  2. Crespi, S. (Producer). (2023, June 8). Contraception for cats, and taking solvents out of chemistry [Audio podcast episode]. In Science Podcast. American Association for the Advancement of Science. https://www.science.org/content/podcast/contraception-cats-and-taking-solvents-out-chemistry
  3. de Jesús, E. G. (2023, June 6). A gene therapy shot might keep cats from getting pregnant without being spayed. ScienceNews. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/gene-therapy-shot-cats-spay-pregnant
  4. Golembiewski, K. (2023, June 6). Nonsurgical cat contraception could help curb overpopulation, study says. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/06/world/cat-contraceptives-scn/index.html
  5. Grimm, D. (2023, June 6). Hello kitty, goodbye kittens? Gene therapy spays cats without surgery. Science. doi: 10.1126/science.adj0979
  6. Katsnelson, A. (2023, June 6). Gene therapy may offer birth control for cats. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/06/science/cats-birth-control.html
  7. Ridings, M. (2023, June 6). Birth control for cats? Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2023/06/birth-control-for-cats-is-effective-but-ahead-of-its-time/
  8. Today’s Veterinary Business. (2023, June 19). Gene therapy shows promise in feline contraception. https://todaysveterinarybusiness.com/gene-therapy-0623/
  9. Vansandt, L. M., Meinsohn, M., Godin, P., Nagykery, N., et al. (2023). Durable contraception in the female domestic cat using viral-vectored delivery of a feline anti-Müllerian hormone transgene. Nature Communications, 14, 3140. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38721-0

Published July 9th, 2023

Science

Do Cats Always Land on Their Feet?

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Ginger cat jumping off fence
Photo by Dmitry Egorov on Pexels

The short answer is, no, cats don’t always land on their feet. But they do have a remarkable knack for it. They start to develop the uncanny trait by the time they’re three-week-old kittens [7]! And it’s not just domestic cats–wild felines, even big cats like tigers and leopards, can do it, too [3]. Humans have been mystified by this ability for centuries, at least [4]. Most of us aren’t that graceful. Neither are our dogs, horses, guinea pigs, and other pets. So how do our cats land on their feet?

Born to Fall

Cats and many other felines are arboreal animals [3, 6]. This means that in the wild, they spend most of their time in trees. Arboreal animals obviously have to be good at climbing, but they also have to be good at falling [6]. It’s an inevitable danger of life in the trees. So cats have several adaptations to help them fall gracefully. Cats have a high ratio of surface area to body weight, so when they fall, they create a lot of drag and fall more slowly than many other animals [3, 6]. A falling cat instinctively spreads out their legs like a parachute to slow their descent even more [2, 6, 8]. Cats also have relatively long, muscular legs and springy joints that act as shock absorbers [3, 6]. But, of course, that only works when cats land on their feet. This brings us to a particularly complex adaptation, the aerial righting reflex.

The Aerial Righting Reflex

“Photographs of a Tumbling Cat,” 1894 – Image from Public Domain Review

All creatures that live in trees have an aerial righting reflex [6]. The aerial righting reflex describes the ability of these animals to know which way is down while falling and to reorient their bodies to land upright [3-6]. Cats can even execute this maneuver while blindfolded [4]. Physicists and biologists conducted experiments by dropping cats (and sometimes other animals) under various circumstances for centuries, trying to understand how they did it [4]. Then in 1894, the French physiologist Étienne-Jules Marey used an early slow-motion photography technique to photograph a falling cat, finally revealing the series of precise twisting motions that cats use to turn themselves right-way-up [4, 5].

DO NOT TRY THIS AT HOME. My mother has admitted to trying the cat-dropping experiment on the family cat when she and my uncle were kids, and during my research I stumbled upon many online videos of people doing the same. I’m sure countless cats have survived such “tests” without injury, but it’s not worth the risk that something might go wrong this time, and your cat gets hurt.

For the aerial righting reflex, cats rely on the semicircular canals deep inside their ears [1, 4, 8]. These tiny, fluid-filled tubes are what many animals use to sense the pull of gravity and to maintain their balance, including humans. If a cat’s semicircular canals are damaged, they can no longer right themselves in the air, even if they can see their surroundings [4]. Using the information from these inner ear structures, the cat’s brain quickly establishes which way is up vs. down. Then they employ some physics.

Some Physics

The angular momentum of a spinning object is a function of its mass, the distribution of that mass, and its rotation rate. If no outside force acted upon the object, the angular momentum wouldn’t change. This is why a figure skater spins faster when they pull their arms tight against their body. They are decreasing the distribution of their mass, but their mass itself can’t change, so their rotation speed must increase. This is the principle behind how cats flip themselves around in midair. [4, 5]

The first step of the aerial righting reflex, then, is for a cat to arch their back, which for physics purposes separates their body into two rotating halves. Then they rotate their head to get their front half spinning and extend their hind legs. Tucking in their front legs causes their front half to rotate quickly. To conserve their angular momentum, their back half will start to rotate in the opposite direction around its axis, but with their hind legs stuck out, it rotates more slowly. Extending the front legs stops the rotation of that half of their body. The back legs catch up, and after about 1.5 seconds, kitty has turned all the way around to land on her four paws. [4, 5]

If you find that explanation hard to follow…me too. I had to read it about ten times and look at the diagrams in chapter seven of Falling Felines and Fundamental Physics to figure it out [4]. Looking at Marey’s photograph series and watching videos like the one below helped, too.

The righting reflex in slow motion

High Rise Syndrome

On the subject of cats mostly landing on their feet, I want to tell you about high rise syndrome. With the literal rise of urban life building taller and taller apartment complexes, cats and other pets sometimes fall off of balconies and out of windows [2, 3, 6, 8]. Cats have great survival skills, but nothing in nature equipped them to think about clear glass or twenty-story buildings [2]. They’re instincts evolved to climbs trees, not concrete jungles. Unfortunately, because cats are particularly inclined to climb and pounce at birds, they are also especially likely to experience these falls [2, 8]. The term high rise syndrome can refer either to the phenomenon of cats falling from tall buildings [8] or to veterinarians’ and researchers’ curious observation that cats tend to have better outcomes when falling from higher stories than lower ones [2].

The research isn’t entirely consistent, but there are indications beyond the anecdotal evidence of veterinarians that it might be true, at least sometimes [8]. The most dangerous falls are generally said to be between the second and sixth stories (20-60 ft or 6-18 m). A fall from the first story is hardly even a fall, especially for a cat. But why would they be in less danger about the sixth story? Experts believe that when cats fall from just a few stories, they don’t have enough time to complete the aerial righting reflex, so they may land in awkward positions that cause greater injury [2].

Of course, there is a height at which the benefit of the reflex wouldn’t be enough, but for obvious reasons no one has experimented to find out exactly what that height is. We do know that cats can survive thirty-story falls, often with severe injuries [2]. However, a 1987 study in New York City of cats brought to a veterinarian after falls from high-rises found that not only did 90% survive, but one cat that fell thirty-two stories suffered only a chipped tooth and a collapsed lung [6]. A study published in 2004 which looked at 119 cats that fell from apartment buildings and were brought to a clinic in Zagreb, Croatia, found that the most common injury was a broken leg [8].

Preventing Your Cat from Falling

The researchers in the 2004 study also found that younger cats fell more often which makes sense, because kittens and young cats are more energetic, more curious, and less aware of the world’s dangers [8]. They reported that 65% of high-rise falls happened in the warmest months, from April-September [8]. Other research has shown the same thing: the warm spring/summer season leads to more incidents of high rise syndrome [2, 8]. This happens because people tend to open windows and balcony doors when it’s warm out [2, 8]. So either keep your doors and windows closed or put screens on them, especially if your cat is a youngster [2, 8]! And always keep an eye on kitty if you let them go out on the balcony. Outside time is great, but that’s not a safe place for a cat to be unsupervised.

In 2014, Gizmo survived a 12-story fall from his Manhattan apartment. He has a lot to say about it.

Works Cited

  1. Alderton, D. (1992). Cats: The visual guide to more than 250 types of cats from around the world. Dorling Kindersley Ltd. London.
  2. Becker, M. and Spadafori, G. (2006). Do cats always land on their feet? 101 of the most perplexing questions answered about feline unfathomables, medical mysteries & befuddling behaviors. Health Communications, Inc. Deerfield Beach, FL.
  3. Bondi Vet. (n.d.). Why do cats always land on their feet? https://www.bondivet.com/promo/cats-land-on-their-feet
  4. Gbur, G. (2019). The cat righting reflex. In Falling felines and fundamental physics. Yale University Press. New Haven, CT.
  5. Kesten, P. (2018, June 1). Why do cats always land on their feet? Santa Clarita University. https://www.scu.edu/illuminate/thought-leaders/phil-kesten/why-do-cats-always-land-on-their-feet.html
  6. Nasaw, D. (2012, March 25). Who, what, why: How do cats survive falls from great heights? BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-17492802
  7. Sechzera, J. A., Folsteina, S. E., Geigera, E. H., Mervisa, R. F., et al. (1984). Development and maturation of postural reflexes in normal kittens. Experimental Neurology, 86(3), 493–505. doi:10.1016/0014-4886(84)90084-0
  8. Vnuk, D., Pirkić, B., Matičić, D., Radišić, B., et al. (2004). Feline high-rise syndrome: 119 cases (1998–2001). Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 6(5), 305–312. doi:10.1016/j.jfms.2003.07.001

Published June 11th, 2023

Breed Profiles

Toyger: Tiny Toy Tigers

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Meredith Hemphill

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Toyger is a portmanteau of “toy” and “tiger” [6, 7, 10]. If there were such a thing as a toy tiger like there are toy poodles, this is probably what they would look like. Toygers are a new and very rare designer cat breed meant to have the exotic appearance of a tiger with the disposition of a domestic cat [2, 7-9].

History of the Toyger

Photo by Matteus Silva on Pexels

To be clear, Toygers are not at all related to actual tigers [1, 4, 7-10]. That would be impossible. They are related to Asian Leopard Cats, however, because they are a combination of Bengals, which are hybrid cats, and mackerel tabby Domestic Shorthairs [1, 2, 5-11].

The breed was created in the 1980s in California by Judy Sugden, whose mother, Jean Mill, created Bengals [2, 4, 6-8]. A local exotic animal sanctuary with wild cats among its rescues got her thinking how incredible it would be to have a housecat that looked like one of those [5]. Then, Sugden noticed that one of her Bengals, Milwood Sharp Shooter, had spotted tabby markings on the sides of his head [1, 2, 6-9]. Domestic tabby cats don’t usually have stripes there, but tigers do, and this got Sugden thinking–what if she could breed a housecat that looked like a tiger [1, 2, 7-9]?

Sugden began a breeding program with a hefty Bengal named Milwood Rumpled Spotskin and a tabby Domestic Shorthair named Scrapmetal [2, 6, 7, 9]. She also traveled to India and brought home a stray tabby cat from Kashmir with just the right spotted markings between his ears [2, 4, 6-9]. She named him Jammu Blu and added him to the nascent breeding program [2, 4, 6, 7, 9].

With very careful selective breeding, Sugden and a small number of other breeders have developed a breed with tiger-like traits. Sugden calls the slow process “squinch-by-squinch development” [4]. Over thirty years in, they still aren’t finished perfecting the Toyger [2, 5, 10]. Nonetheless, The International Cat Association (TICA) recognized Toygers as a breed in 1993 and accepted them for championship status in 2007 [1, 2, 6-10]. TICA remains the only registry that fully recognizes Toygers as championship-eligible [4], but the Governing Council of the Cat Fancy (GCCF), a U.K. registry, gave Toygers preliminary status in 2016 [2].

Breed Characteristics

Appearance

Toygers are medium-to-large cats with long, low, muscular bodies [1, 2, 6-9]. Combined with their long toes, their body shape gives them a rolling gait like a tiger [1, 5, 6, 8]. They carry their long tails low like a big cat, too [2]. Toygers have a broad head with small, rounded ears and small-to-medium eyes [2, 4, 7]. Their signature trait, of course, is their tiger-like pelt.

Toyger fur is dense and plush. All Toygers are tabbies, with bold, vertical stripes that have broken and braided patterns just like tiger stripes [1, 4-8]. TICA and GCCF only recognize the “brown mackerel tabby” Toyger, which is the black-on-orange type that looks like your typical tiger [2, 9]. They also have some white on their undersides and gold “glitter” [1, 4, 6-9]. Glitter is a genetic trait that gives a cat’s coat a, well, glittery appearance. A few breeders do have Toygers in other colors, including silver/white Toygers meant to resemble white tigers [10].

Personality

Photo by danilobiancalana

The Toyger is an active, outgoing, and intelligent cat [1, 2, 5-9]. They need a lot of playtime and cognitive stimulation to make sure they don’t get bored [1, 5-7]. Happily, they are quite sociable and trainable, so there are plenty of ways you can entertain each other [1, 6, 8, 9]. Toygers are even recommended for running agility courses [1]! Toygers often enjoy learning tricks like fetch and going on walks on a leash [1, 6-8]. They can usually make friends with anybody, including children and other pets, so a Toyger can make a good family pet [1, 2, 5-7].

Keeping Company with Tigers

A Toyger’s short coat can pretty much take care of itself, but these kitties do shed quite a bit, so occasional brushing might be good just to keep the free-floating fluff to a minimum [2, 5, 7-9]. These cats need something to do when you’re out of the house, so make sure they have plenty of toys and maybe another pet to play with [8]. These smart kitties particularly enjoy the challenge of puzzle toys [6]. And Toygers are affectionate cats that love to spend time with their families, so make sure that you have that time to spend with them every day [1, 8]!

Special Health Concerns?

Because Toygers are such a new breed, and there are still very few of them, no one knows for sure what sort of breed-specific health problems they might turn out to have [1, 2, 7, 8]. So far, they seem to be generally healthy cats. Some breeders have reported adverse reactions to the feline leukemia vaccine in their cats, but this hasn’t been substantiated [2]. Toygers may have an increased risk for heart murmurs [7-9]. A 2016 study in the Journal of Veterinary Medicine discovered a serious developmental brain disorder in a family of Toygers [3].

Affected Toygers had underdeveloped or absent brain structures as well as enlarged ventricles (the fluid-filled cavities in the brain) and cysts in their brains [3]. They behaved surprisingly normally for all that, only seeming to be “clumsy” [3]. The disorder is a recessive genetic disorder, which means kittens must inherit it from both parents, and it is was tied to the trait of short, round ears that breeders select for in Toygers [3]. The researchers didn’t figure out why the brain problems and the ear shape were connected [3], and other Toygers with similar ears have not been shown to have the same problem. It remains to be seen if this condition was unique to this family of Toygers or if it is a more widespread problem that has not become obvious yet.

Adopting a Toyger

There are very few Toygers in the world because this is such a new breed, and there still are not many breeders. Add to that the fact that the breed is still under development, and you have a recipe for some very expensive cats. $5,000 for one Toyger kitten is pretty typical [4, 10]. The even rarer silver/white Toyger kittens are more expensive than that, up to $10,000 [10].

Because Toygers are descended from Bengals (albeit somewhat distantly) which are hybrids of domestic cats and Asian Leopard Cats, some locations consider Toygers wild animals [4]. Toygers may be banned outright or require a permit in your location, so be sure to check the local laws at all levels before you bring one home [4].

Remember, it’s always better to adopt than shop. Check out breed-specific rescues like Great Lakes Bengal Rescue to see if they have any Toygers that need a home! Also, responsible breeders will adopt out adult cats that don’t quite fit the breed standard or have been retired from breeding.

Fun Facts

  1. Toygers love water! They might sneak into the shower with you. [6]
  2. Every Toyger’s stripes are totally unique. [6, 7]
  3. Some Toyger breeders donate a portion of profits from kitten sales to tiger conservation. [5]
Toyger kittens on Animal Planet’s Too Cute!

Works Cited

  1. El’Sprite Toygers. (n.d.). Toyger information. OzToyger. https://oztoyger.com.au/toyger-info
  2. Governing Council of the Cat Fancy. (n.d.). Toyger. https://www.gccfcats.org/getting-a-cat/choosing/cat-breeds/toyger/
  3. Keating, M. K., Sturges, B. K., Siso, S., Wisner, E. R., et al. (2016). Characterization of an inherited neurological syndrome in Toyger cats with forebrain commissural malformations, ventriculomegaly and interhemispheric cysts. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 30, 617-626. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/jvim.13836
  4. Marvar, A. (2020, May 27). You thought your cat was fancy? She wanted a cat that looked like the tiger. Meet the Toyger. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/27/style/toyger-fever.html
  5. Scherr, A. (Producer). (2011, April 9). Tonkinese, Nebelung, Serengeti, Korat, Cats Gone Wild, RagaMuffin, Toyger (Season 3, Episode 3) [TV series episode]. In Cats 101, Powderhouse Productions.
  6. Sorocco, E. (2020, July 2). Toyger. Catster. https://www.catster.com/cat-breeds/toyger
  7. Syufy, F. (2022, June 30). Toyger cat: Cat breed profile, characteristics & care. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/toyger-cat-profile-554213
  8. Taylor, C. and Guthrie, C. (2021, March 24). Toyger. Daily Paws. https://www.dailypaws.com/cats-kittens/cat-breeds/toyger
  9. The International Cat Association. (2020, April 13). Toyger breed. https://tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&id=1868
  10. Urban Exotic Cats. (n.d.). The Toyger cat. https://urbanexoticcats.com/the-toyger-cat/

Published May 14th, 2023

Behavior

Why Do Cats Rub Against Your Legs?

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Page from old book with drawing of cat rubbing a person's legs
“Cat in an affectionate from of mind, by Mr. Wood” from The Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals by Charles Darwin

Whether you find it annoying or cute, it is a universal truth that cats rub legs–and pretty much everything else, including each other. This quirky behavior is unique to cats [8]. Why do they do it? What’s so interesting about our legs? And our shoes? And that one corner of the sofa?

Showing Affection

As I discussed in my article about how our cats show that they love us, cats communicate their affection with their humans in the only ways they know how: like they would with another cat. A friendly nuzzle or head butt is one way that cats express affection for each other [1, 3, 4, 8]. It may be a greeting or just a reminder that they love you [3, 6].

When cats rub our legs, they put their faces and eyes in a vulnerable position, so it’s a clear sign that kitty trusts you and feels comfortable around you [5]. As animals that are in the middle of the food chain, cats need to be extremely vigilant to survive, so they only let their guard down if they feel completely safe.

Diagram showing position of a cat's scent glands
Diagram of Cat Scent Glands from Cat Care Center of Baton Rouge

Scent Marking

Cats are also naturally territorial animals, and rubbing both objects and family members is a healthy territorial behavior. Cats have a lot of scent glands on their faces [1-3, 5-8]. They use the pheromones produced by these scent glands to mark their territory by rubbing against objects [1-6]. Cats also create a group scent within their colony by rubbing their pheromones onto each other [2, 4, 5]. Since we are part of our cats’ social groups, our cats rub our legs to create a group scent [2, 4, 5]. Although we can’t smell it, it’s important to our pets [1].

When cats scent mark each other, they usually nuzzle their heads together [5, 7]. But humans are just too tall [7]! So instead, cats rub their faces against whatever part of us they can reach, and that’s usually our legs or feet [5, 7].

Trying to Tell You Something

Does your cat suddenly start twining around your legs when it’s time for their dinner, or when they think it’s time for their dinner? Mine do, and I nearly fall on my face about once a week. Why are they rubbing us then? Because they’re trying to get our attention and give us a message [3, 4, 6, 8]. In this case, the message is clearly, “Feed me.” Sometimes, though, cats might rub our legs because they want to play or to be pet [3, 4, 6, 8].

So if your cat keeps nuzzling you over and over, they may be trying to ask you for something. Unless you were recently visiting with another cat. Then they may just be trying to make you smell right again.

Works Cited

  1. Becker, M. and Spadafori, G. (2006). Do cats always land on their feet? 101 of the most perplexing questions answered about feline unfathomables, medical mysteries & befuddling behaviors. Health Communications, Inc. Deerfield Beach, FL.
  2. Blackwell, E. (2022, October 5). How to tell if your cat loves you, according to science. Scientific American. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-tell-if-your-cat-loves-you-according-to-science/
  3. Bondi Vet. (n.d.). Why do cats knead and rub against us? https://www.bondivet.com/promo/why-do-cats-rub
  4. Catonsville Cat Clinic. (2018, February 16). Why does my cat rub against…everything? https://www.catonsvillecatclinic.com/holmes-corner/why-does-my-cat-rub-againsteverything/
  5. Gormly, K.B. (2020, September 15). Why do cats rub against you? Catster. https://www.catster.com/cat-behavior/why-do-cats-rub-against-you-a-weird-cat-behavior-explained
  6. Grimmet, D. (n.d.). Ask the vet: Why do cats rub against your leg? Sunset Vet Clinic. https://www.sunsetvetclinic.com/ask-the-vet-why-do-cats-rub-against-your-leg/
  7. International Cat Care. (2018, October 5). Why do cats rub round their owners’ legs? https://icatcare.org/advice/why-do-cats-rub-round-their-owners-legs/
  8. Waynick, L. (2021, December 14). 3 reasons cats rub against your legs. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/why-cats-rub-against-legs-5210427

Published March 19, 2023

Culture

Mini Blog: Reporting from the Chicago Field Museum

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

I recently visited one of my Bucket List museums (yes, that is the kind of nerd that I am). I wanted to share a few of my pictures from the Chicago Field Museum featuring feline artifacts in their collections.

For more information about cat mummies in ancient Egypt, see my article on the goddess Bastet. The lions of Tsavo are on my shortlist for future articles. If you don’t know, it is a gruesome and fascinating tale.

  • cat mummy
    Ancient Egyptian cat mummy
  • two jade cats
    A pair of cats sculpted from jade in China
  • two taxidermy lions
    The final resting place of the lions of Tsavo
  • selfie with taxidermy lions
    My somber selfie with the Tsavo lions
  • two lion skulls
    The skulls of the Tsavo lions
Science

Feline Calicivirus

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Shoutout to Dad for suggesting calicivirus as a topic.

Upper respiratory infections are common in cats. Often called cat flu, these infections are a lot like the colds and flus that humans get in the winter. Cat flu is highly contagious, but not very serious for most healthy adult cats. It can be dangerous for young kittens, seniors, and cats with chronic illnesses or weak immune systems. Like human colds, cat flu can be caused by more than one virus, but one of the most common culprits is feline calicivirus.

What is Feline Calicivirus?

Feline calicivirus particles
A calicivirus showing the characteristic chalice shapes on the surface – Photo by Marian C. Horzinek [2]

Feline calicivirus (FCV) is part of the Caliciviridae family of viruses [1, 2]. There are viruses from this family that afflict a wide range of vertebrate animals, including humans [1, 2]. Norovirus is a member of the Caliciviridae, as are some diseases of rabbits [1, 2]. The name calicivirus comes from the Greek work “calyx,” meaning “cup” or “goblet” [2]. This refers to the cup-shaped depressions on the surface of the hexagonal or star-shaped virus particles [2].

Feline calicivirus is specific to cats, both housecats and wild species [1, 2]. It is a single-stranded mRNA virus, a type which is particularly prone to mutation [2]. This has led to there being many different strains of FCV around the world.

How Are Cats Infected with Calicivirus?

FCV spreads most often in environments where a large number of cats live in close proximity to each other, such as boarding kennels, pet stores, shelters, breeding facilities, and dense feral colonies [1-5]. The risk begins to increase dramatically when as few as four cats are in close proximity [2]. In groups of fewer than four healthy cats, the infection rate is 2.5%, but groups of four or more healthy cats have an infection rate of 32% [2]! In colonies and shelters, the rate can range from 50-90% [2].

The virus is spread through direct contact with body fluids from an infected cat, primarily saliva and eye and nose secretions [1-5]. Blood, urine, and feces can also spread the virus, as can aerosolized droplets from sneezes [1-5]. This means sharing things like food bowls, water bowls, litterboxes, and bedding can spread FCV [1-3]. So can just sharing an environment, or human caretakers can accidentally spread the virus around by getting it on their hands or clothes [1-3]. Most infected cats shed virus for 2-3 weeks, but some become carriers and continue to spread FCV for months or years [1, 2].

Symptoms of Feline Calicivirus

The typical presentation of FCV is an upper respiratory infection [1-5]. The virus attacks the inside of the mouth and the lungs [1, 2]. The symptoms include the usual upper respiratory signs like sneezing, stuffy/runny nose, runny eyes, and sleepiness [1-3]. However, FCV may also cause ulcers inside the mouth, which may in turn lead to drooling and refusal to eat due to oral pain [1-5]. Occasionally vulnerable cats, usually young kittens, will develop pneumonia [2, 3]. It is rarely fatal, however, and most cats will recover in a week or so, although severe cases may take up to six weeks [1].

Some cats who become infected with feline calicivirus go on to develop chronic gingivitis [1-5]. Researches do not yet know why this happens, or why it only happens to certain cats [2]. If your cat has recently recovered from cat flu and is still having problems with their mouth, this is probably something to talk to your veterinarian about.

Limping Syndrome

FCV can sometimes attack the joints and result in a strange–and upsetting–manifestation known as limping syndrome [1-5]. It mostly occurs in kittens [3, 4], and it can look very scary. Affected kittens develop a fever as well as pain, stiffness, and lameness in their joints, but which limb(s) are affected may change over time [2-4]. Sometimes limping syndrome occurs as a side effect of an FCV vaccination, not from an infection [2, 3, 5]. Although it is painful, limping syndrome only lasts 2-3 days and usually clears up on its own [2-4]. However, during that time, your veterinarian may be able to prescribe anti-inflammatory and/or pain medication to make your kitten more comfortable [2, 3]. Kittens that are severely affected may be reluctant to move at all [3] and need your help getting to their food, water, and litterbox until they’re feeling better.

Advice from Kitten Lady Hannah Shaw on taking care of kittens with limping syndrome

Virulent Systemic Feline Calicivirus (VS-FCV)

In rare instances, the FCV virus mutates into a much, much more dangerous form called virulent systemic feline calicivirus (VS-FCV) [2, 3]. VS-FCV is able to infect multiple organ systems and the lining of blood vessels [2, 3]. It causes high fever, inflammation throughout the body, swelling of the head and limbs, sores on the face and feet, jaundice, and multiorgan failure [1-3]. About 60% of cats infected with VS-FCV die [1-3]. Fortunately, outbreaks are very rare [1-3] and have only been observed in some countries [3]. Researches have not found any genetic traits that distinguish VS-FCV strains from regular FCV strains, however, making it difficult to specifically vaccinate against VS-FCV until there’s a breakthrough [2].

Treatment and Prevention

FCV usually goes away on its own in healthy cats [1-4]. There are currently no antiviral drugs that are proven to be effective against FCV, although a couple have shown promise in preliminary research [2]. As such, treatment focuses on relieving symptoms and supporting your cat’s body while it fights off the virus [1-4]. Your veterinarian might decide to prescribe medication like a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug or anticongestant [1, 2, 4]. Keeping the eyes and nose clean is important–nebulizers and saline eye or nose drops can help [1, 2, 4]. Some cats may need intravenous fluids [1, 2, 4]. Since many cats lose their appetite or simply find eating difficult, you may have to try different foods or ways of presenting their food to make sure they eat [1, 2, 4]. In severe cases, they may require a feeding tube [1, 2, 4].

Cat getting vaccine
Photo by Gustavo Fring on Pexels

The bad news is that FCV is extremely widespread. The good news is that there is a vaccine for it, which the American Association of Feline Practitioners [5] and European Advisory Board on Cat Diseases [2] both consider a core vaccine that all cats need to have. FCV is usually included in a combination vaccine with other common viruses [2].

Because there are so many different strains of FCV, the vaccine doesn’t always prevent a cat from becoming infected, but it is effective at preventing them from getting sick [2, 5]. Kittens lose the protection of the immune cells they get from their mothers somewhere between 6 and 14 weeks of age, so the American Association of Feline Practitioners recommends vaccinating kittens against FCV at 6 weeks, or as early as is allowed in your country [5]. Kittens should receive a primary vaccination series of 2-3 shots, and adult cats should receive a booster every 1-3 years, depending upon their risk level [2, 3, 5].

Works Cited

  1. Baker Institute for Animal Health. (2016). Feline calicivirus. Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. https://www.vet.cornell.edu/departments-centers-and-institutes/baker-institute/our-research/feline-calicivirus
  2. Hofmann-Lehmann, R., Hosie, M. J., Hartmann, K., Egberink, H., et al. (2022). Calicivirus infection in cats. Viruses, 14(5), 937. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fv14050937
  3. International Cat Care. (2018, August 17). Feline calicivirus (FCV) infection. https://icatcare.org/advice/feline-calicivirus-fcv-infection/
  4. Kuehn, N. F. (2022, October). Feline respiratory disease complex (feline viral rhinotracheitis, feline calicivirus). Merck Veterinary Manual. https://www.merckvetmanual.com/cat-owners/lung-and-airway-disorders-of-cats/feline-respiratory-disease-complex-feline-viral-rhinotracheitis,-feline-calicivirus?query=calicivirus
  5. Scherk, M. A., Ford, R. B., Gaskell, R. M., Hartmann, K., et al. (2013). Disease information fact sheet: Feline calicivirus. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 15, supplementary file. https://catvets.com/public/PDFs/PracticeGuidelines/Guidelines/Vaccination/FelineCalicivirus_FactSheet.pdf

Published February 12th, 2023

Breed Profiles

Selkirk Rex: The Cat in Sheep’s Clothing

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Meredith Hemphill

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Encyclopaedia Felidae now has a Patreon! Go to www.patreon.com/EncyclopaediaFelidae if you want to help support this content!

Lilac Selkirk Rex in profile
Image by Adrian from Pixabay

Random mutations are the genesis of some of the most interesting cat breeds, including the Selkirk Rex. There are several rex breeds, distinguished by their curly coats. The Selkirk Rex is sometimes called “the cat in sheep’s clothing” due to its particularly wooly appearance [6, 7]. This is a relatively new breed, and still uncommon [1-4], but they charm everyone they meet with their lovely curls and warm personalities.

Humble Origins

In 1987, a shelter cat in Montana, USA gave birth to a litter of kittens [1, 3, 4, 6, 7]. This would be an unremarkable event except that one of them had curly fur [1-4, 7]. The little blue-cream-and-white she-kitten came to the attention of a local Persian breeder named Jeri Newman, who got excited about the possibility of a new rexoid mutation [1-3, 6, 7]. Newman adopted the kitten and named her Miss DePesto because she was always pestering people for attention [7]! When Miss DePesto grew up, Newman bred her with one of the Persians, a black tom named PhotoFinish of Deekay [1-3, 7]. Three of their six kittens had curly hair [1-3, 7].

This showed that Miss DePesto’s mutation was a dominant trait–a cat would only need one copy of the mutation to have curly fur. The Devon Rex and Cornish Rex mutations are both recessive, requiring two copies, so Newman definitely had something new on her hands [3, 7]. She developed the Selkirk Rex breed from Miss Depesto’s bloodline, incorporating not only Persians but also British Shorthairs, American Shorthairs, and Exotic Shorthairs [1, 6]. The breed began to be recognized by cat fancy organizations in the early 1990s [4, 7].

Breed Characteristics

Appearance

The hair, of course, is the star attraction. Selkirk Rexes can occasionally be born with straight fur if they inherit a wild-type (non-mutant) allele from both parents, but this doesn’t happen often because the mutation has already become almost fixed in the population [5]. A trait becomes “fixed” in a population when all individuals have the same genetic makeup for it. So most Selkirk Rexes have curly coats, including curly whiskers, both of which are apparent at birth [1-7]. The coat texture can change somewhat during the first months of life and doesn’t reach it’s full potential until kittens are 8-10 months old, however [1]. Their adult coat is plush and has loose curls [1-4, 6, 7]. Unlike other rex breeds, Selkirk Rexes have a full coat with all three layers [4]. They may have short or long fur [1-4, 6, 7].

Close-up of Selkirk Rex coat – Image by Adrian from Pixabay

The mutation that causes Selkirk Rexes to have curls is in the KRT71 gene which is important for producing the protein keratin in the hair follicles [5]. Different mutations in this same gene cause the recessive rexoid mutation in Devon Rexes and the nearly-hairless condition of Sphynx cats [5].

Due to their ancestry among Persians and breeds with similar builds, Selkirk Rexes are stocky cats [1-4, 6, 7] with moderately shortened muzzles [1]. They come in all colors and patterns [1-4, 6, 7].

Personality

The Selkirk Rex is a friendly and affectionate cat that loves spending time with people [1, 2, 6, 7]. They are laid-back and relaxed, but they aren’t as like to be lap cats as Persians–these kitties like to play, too [2, 6, 7]! They are generally patient and tolerant, and they get along well with children, other pets, and strangers, as long as they are well-socialized [2, 6, 7]. These cats just want to be the life of the party! But a mellow party, please. Selkirk Rexes make good pets for families [2, 6]. They can get bored if left alone for very long or not played with regularly, so keep that in mind [6].

Selkirk Rex at Home

A Selkirk Rex doesn’t have too many special requirements, but that beautiful coat does need some attention. Loose hair can become caught in their curls and lead to mats [2]. However, too much grooming can make their coat frizzy [2, 6]. If you have curly or wavy hair of your own, you’ll be familiar with that problem. Combing their fur weekly with a wide-toothed comb is the best way to work out tangles and loose fur without making kitty’s hair stand on end [2, 6]. Some Selkirk Rexes need baths occasionally as [2, 6]. If this is the case for your cat, make sure you use a light shampoo that won’t weight down and flatten their curls [2, 3]. Ask a veterinarian, groomer, or breeder for recommendations. After a bath, towel dry your Selkirk Rex, then let their coat air dry [2].

Health Concerns

Selkirk Rexes are fairly healthy, like most breeds that originated with random-bred cats. However, there is a lot of Persian and other purebred cats in their ancestry, and they have inherited a propensity toward a few health problems from that side of the family [2, 6]. Selkirk Rexes are a bit prone to polycystic kidney disease (PKD), a genetic kidney disorder that kittens are born with which leads to kidney failure later in life [2, 6]. Fortunately, there is a screening test for PKD, and responsible breeders will make sure they do not breed cats who carry it [2].

The Selkirk Rex is also more likely to develop Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM), the most common form of heart disease in cats [2, 6]. Hip dysplasia, which is common in Persians, can be a risk as well [2, 6].

Because Selkirk Rex is a new and still rare breed, they don’t often arrive in animal shelters, but it’s always better to adopt than shop. You might be surprised–lost and abandoned purebred cats go to shelters and rescues everyday. You can also look at places like Selkirk Rex Rescue & Retired Breeding Cats, where fanciers are trying to find good homes for their favorite breed.

Fun Facts

Gray Selkirk Rex in front of rainbow pillows
Image by Adrian from Pixabay
  • The Selkirk Rex is the only breed named after a real person. Jeri Newman chose the name “Selkirk” in honor of her stepfather. [6]
  • Sterilized mature Selkirk Rexes have the highest quality coats. [3, 7]
  • The birthplace of the Selkirk Rex, in the form of Miss DePesto, was the Bozeman Humane Society [1]. The area is now served by Heart of the Valley Animal Shelter.

Works Cited

  1. Alderton, D. (1992). Cats: The visual guide to more than 250 types of cats from around the world. Dorling Kindersley: London.
  2. Brown, J. (2022, July 14). Selkirk Rex: Cat breed profile, characteristics & care. The Spruce Pets. https://www.thesprucepets.com/selkirk-rex-cat-breed-profile-4774250
  3. Cat Fanciers’ Association. (n.d.). About the Selkirk Rex. https://cfa.org/selkirk-rex/
  4. Edwards, A. (2006). The ultimate encyclopedia of cat, cat breeds, and cat care. Hermes House: London.
  5. Gandolfi, B., Alhaddad, H., Joslin, S. E. K., Khan, R., et al. (2013). A splice variant in KRT71 is associated with curly coat phenotype of Selkirk Rex cats. Scientific Reports, 3, 2000. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep02000
  6. Jimerson, G. and Guthrie, C. (2022, January 26). Selkirk Rex. The Daily Paws. https://www.dailypaws.com/cats-kittens/cat-breeds/selkirk-rex
  7. The International Cat Association. (2018, August 13). Selkirk Rex breed. https://www.tica.org/breeds/browse-all-breeds?view=article&id=875:selkirk-rex-breed&catid=79

Published January 8th, 2022

Updated June 14th, 2023

Cat Care

How to Help a Cat Who Is Scared of Fireworks

mehshadoweye

Meredith Hemphill

mehshadoweye

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Pink fireworks
Image by PublicDomainPictures from Pixabay

The new year is just around the corner and the pyrotechnic celebrations that come with it. Dogs are most infamous for their firework freakouts, but lots of animals may be afraid of the loud noises and fiery flashes in the sky–horses, livestock, wildlife, and, of course, cats. If you’re reading this article, you already know that many cats are scared of fireworks and all the other explosive expressions of joy that people set off at certain times of year. Or for no apparent reason at all. You can’t do much about the loud people, but there are steps you can take to calm your cat.

Desensitization

Fireworks are loud. Really loud. Especially for our cats, whose hearing is much more sensitive than ours. Fireworks also flash like lightning, rain fire from the sky, and leave a burnt, smoky aroma hanging in the air. The sound, sight, and smell can all be frightening to animals [4, 6]. The same goes for smaller explosives like firecrackers and sparklers. When you know a pyrotechnic holiday is coming up, you can prepare your cat by desensitizing them to the sounds so that the real thing won’t be such an overwhelming experience [3, 5, 6, 8]. You can also adapt this technique for cats who are afraid of thunderstorms.

While your cat is nice and relaxed, play audio of fireworks at a low volume nearby. If your cat walks away or acts distressed, turn it off and try again another time. If your cat remains calm, give them a treat. The next day, do it again with the volume a little bit louder. If the volume ever starts to stress your cat out, you’ll need to go down to a lower volume and work back up. Keep going until the volume is as high as you feel comfortable taking it. Only play the firework audio for a few minutes at a time, at most ten, and keep in mind that it is much louder for your cat than it is for you! [3, 5, 6, 8]

Make a Safe Space

Desensitization exercises don’t fully simulate the experience of explosions in the sky all over the neighborhood, so expect your cat to still be scared of fireworks, just not as frantically. By providing a place for your cat to hide, they can feel safe riding out the noisy night [1, 4-7]. If your cat already has a favorite hiding spot, this could be as simple as stocking that nook with food, water, a litter box, and a comfy blanket [6]. If your cat doesn’t have a favorite place to hide or reacts to fireworks by running around in a panic, you have more work to do. Basically, you need to make the best hiding box ever.

You could use a cardboard box, a crate, anything like that. Put it in a part of the home that your cat already likes to spend a lot of time in. Cover it with a towel or blanket to muffle sound and block out the flashes of light. Put food, water, and litter box either inside or very nearby. Make it nice and cozy with a blanket or cat bed to snuggle down into. Toss a favorite toy or two inside. They’re comfortingly familiar even if kitty doesn’t feel like playing. [1, 4, 5, 7]

You may need to entice your cat to check out the new hiding box. Cats are cautious about new things in their environment. Giving kitty treats and even feeding them inside are good ways to tell your cat that this place means good things.

Line Up Your Tools

Cartoon dog scared of fireworks
Some pets experience more anxiety during fireworks than others

Some cats are more scared of fireworks than others, and they may need a little extra help. If you think your cat’s firework anxiety might need medication management, talk to your veterinarian. They may recommend an over-the-counter supplement for cases that aren’t quite so drastic. Zylkene is a common choice for a cat who is scared of fireworks [4, 5]. Calming pheromone sprays like Feliway can also be helpful [4, 5, 7], as can CBD products like anti-anxiety treats. If your cat has severe firework anxiety, however, your veterinarian may recommend a prescription anxiety medication [1, 5, 6, 8].

On the Night of Bombardment

There are several things you can do to make things easier on your pet when you know the pyrotechnics are coming. The most important thing is to keep your cat indoors, even if they normally stay outside [1, 4, 5, 7, 8]! Keep your windows, doors, and cat flaps closed, too [4, 5, 8]. Panicked cats often try to escape whatever is scaring them, and they can end up running far from home [1, 4, 8]. Make sure your cat is microchipped in case the worst happens and they do get out [1, 7, 8].

Close your blinds/curtains to block out the flashes [4, 8]. To muffle the noise, play music, turn on the TV, or put on white noise [1, 4, 8]. You could try music for cats to see if your kitty finds that soothing [4]. Do your best to behave normally yourself to give the impression that nothing is amiss [4, 6]. If your cat hides, drop by occasionally to offer calming words, pets if they want them, but don’t try to make your cat leave their hiding spot [4-7]. If your cat seems scared of the fireworks but stays out in the open, you can try playing with them to distract them [4-6].

Cats may engage in destructive behaviors when they’re scared [6, 8]. Never punish or yell at your cat for something they do while frightened [1, 8]. They won’t understand and will only feel more unsafe. You want to radiate calmness during this stressful event, even if your cat does something frustrating.

Boom = Treat

If your cat is food-motivated, this game may work well to distract them and teach them to associate fireworks with something positive. It’s exactly what it sounds like. Keep plenty of kitty’s favorite treats nearby or on your person during the fireworks. Every time there’s an explosion, give your cat a treat and tell them how very brave they are. It’s not unusual for cats to refuse food when stressed, so use your best judgement on whether this technique makes sense for your cat. [2, 3]

Have a multi-pet household? Below are the RSPCA’s top tips for helping all pets cope with fireworks.

The RSPCA’s top firework tips for cats, dogs, and small animals. Tip #4 can work for cats, too!

Works Cited

  1. Galaxy, J. [Jackson Galaxy]. (2020, June 24). Keep your animal family safe and sane during fireworks and other holiday celebrations [Video]. YouTube. https://www.jacksongalaxy.com/blog/keep-cats-dogs-safe-calm-sane-during-fireworks-and-holiday-celebrations/
  2. Horberg, M. (2022, June 30). Paws & play newsletter [Email]. Preventive Vet.
  3. Horberg, M. (2022, December 14). Paws & play newsletter [Email]. Preventive Vet.
  4. Johnson-Bennett, P. (n.d.). Tips for calming your cat during fireworks. Cat Behavior Associates. https://catbehaviorassociates.com/tips-for-calming-your-cat-during-fireworks/
  5. Madson, C. (2022, November 11). Getting your dog ready for the 4th of July. Preventive Vet. https://www.preventivevet.com/dogs/get-your-dog-ready-for-4th-of-july
  6. Medina, G. (2022, June 29). Expert tips to keep your pets calm during July 4th fireworks. Consumer Reports. https://www.consumerreports.org/pets/expert-tips-to-keep-your-pets-calm-during-july-4th-fireworks-a7799972004/
  7. RSPCA. (n.d.). Pets and fireworks. https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/general/fireworks
  8. Vets Now. (2020, October 21). How do fireworks affect cats and how do I help my scared cat? https://www.vets-now.com/pet-care-advice/how-do-fireworks-affect-cats/

Published December 19th, 2022